THE NANKING MASSACRE: Fact Versus Fiction
A Historian's Quest for the Truth

NOTES

Works frequently cited have been identified by the following abbreviations:

BN Nankin Senshi Henshu Iinkai [Battle of Nanking Editorial Committee], Nankin senshi [The Battle of Nanking] (Tokyo: Kaikosha, 1993).
EABN Unemoto Masami, "Shogen ni yoru Nankin senshi" [Eyewitness accounts of the Battle of Nanking], Parts 1-10 in Kaiko (April 1984-March 1985).
SMBN Nankin Senshi Henshu Iinkai [Battle of Nanking Editorial Committee], Nankin senshi shiryoshu [Source material relating to the Battle of Nanking] (Tokyo: Kaikosha, 1993).

PREFACE
  1. James Bacque, Other Losses: An Investigation into the Mass Deaths of German Prisoners at the Hands of the French and Americans After World War II (Toronto: Stodart Publishing, 1990), p. 87.

  2. Ibid., p. 87.

  3. Yamamoto Akihiro, "Amerika ni okeru 'Nankin' kenkyu no doko: James Bacque [no] Other Losses wo meguru rongi to hikaku shite" [Comparison of "Nanking" research trends in the U.S. and the debate over James Bacque's Other Losses] in Higashinakano Shudo, ed., Nankin "gyakusatsu" kenkyu no saizensen 2003 [The front line of research on the "Nanking Massacre" 2003] (Tokyo: Tendensha, 2003), p. 143-174.

  4. George F. Will, "Breaking a Sinister Silence," Washington Post (19 February 1998), p. A17.

  5. Tomisawa Shigenobu, Nankin jiken no kakushin [The core of the Nanking Incident] (Tokyo: Tendensha, 2004).

  6. See Chapter 17, Note 17.

  7. H.J. Timperley, ed., What War Means: Japanese Terror in China (New York: Modern Age Books, 1938), p. 161.

  8. Higashinakano Shudo, Kobayashi Susumu and Fukunaga Shinjiro, Nankin Jiken: "Shoko Shashin" wo kensho suru. [Analyzing the "Photographic Evidence" of the Nanking Massacre] (Tokyo: Soshisha, 2005), p. 128.

  9. Higuchi Kiichiro, Rikugun chujo Higuchi Kiichiro kaisoroku [Memoirs of Maj.-Gen. Higuchi Kiichiro] (Tokyo: Fuyo Shobo, 1999), p. 352; David Goodman and Masanori Miyazawa, Jews in the Japanese Mind (New York: Free Press, 1995), p. 112.

  10. Maeda Toru, Ruuzuberuto hiroku gekan [Roosevelt's Secret Records, vol. 2] (Tokyo: Fusosha, 2000), p. 118.

  11. Higashinakano Shudo, ed., "Nankin tokumu kikan hokoku (2)" [Nanking Special Agency Report No. 2] in Nankin gyakusatsu kenkyu no saizensen 2004 [The front line of research on the Nanking Massacre 2004] (Tokyo: Tendensha, 2004), p. 84.
CHAPTER 1: THE ROAD TO THE CAPTURE OF NANKING
  1. See Kasahara Tokushi, "Hakken sareta Nankin gyakusatsu no shogen" [Testimony about Nanking Massacre unearthed] in Sekai (September 1997), p. 153.

  2. See "China unter der Kuomintang 1928-1937" in Grosser Atlas zur Weltgeschichte: Von der Entstehung der Welt bis zur Gegenwart (Koln: Lingen Verlag, 1988), p. 123.

  3. Hallett Abend, Tortured China (New York: Ives Washburn, 1930), pp. 64, 220.

  4. Gaimusho [Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan], ed., Nihon gaiko nenpyo narabi ni shuyo bunsho [Almanac of Japanese foreign relations and principal diplomatic documents] (Tokyo: Hara Shobo, 1965), vol. 1, p. 197.

  5. The established interpretation to the effect that they need not announce maneuvers planned for this area (as long as live ammunition was not used) notwithstanding, Japanese troops had the courtesy to notify Chinese authorities in advance of their schedule. See Hata Ikuhiko, Rokokyo jiken no kenkyu [Study of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident] (Tokyo: Tokyo University Press, 1996), p. 52; and "Jin Zhenzhong kaiso no kaisetsu to bunseki: Genba butai ga akashita kichona shogen" [Analysis of Jin Zhenzhong's recollections: Valuable testimony revealed by a battalion commander on the scene] in Chuo Koron, December 1987, p. 215 by the same author. Note further that Teradaira Tadasuke (a former Army lieutenant colonel assigned to the Beijing Special Agency as an aide in 1936), who witnessed the Marco Polo Bridge Incident stated, "Lin Gengyu of the Hebei-Chahar government's Foreign Relations Committee requested that we give advance notice to the Chinese whenever Japanese troops planned to conduct maneuvers using blanks, especially at night. The Final Protocol Relating to the North China Incident specifies that we are to notify Chinese authorities when we use live ammunition, but there is no mention of such an obligation when blanks are used." Teradaira described his reaction as follows: "We've been doing things this way for 30 years and have never had any problems." See Teradaira Tadasuke, Rokokyo jiken: Nihon no higeki [The Marco Polo Bridge Incident: A Japanese tragedy] (Tokyo: Yomiuri Shinbunsha, 1970), p. 49.

  6. See dialogue among former Army Sgt. Abe Kyuroku, Pfc. Ishikawa Kotaro and Pfc. Takakuwa Yaichiro, all of whom witnessed the incident, in Showa shi no Tenno [The Emperor and Showa era history] (Tokyo: Yomiuri Shinbunsha, 1971), p. 311f.

  7. Using blanks was standard practice during maneuvers, to avoid casualties to allies. Cf. Hata, "Jin Zhenzhong kaiso no kaisetsu to bunseki," p. 215. Note further that according to Company Commander Shimizu Setsuro (8th Company, 3rd Battalion, 1st Infantry Regiment, China Garrison), who was fired upon during night maneuvers on the right bank of the Yongding River, "The men in our unit were wearing the clothing they always wore for maneuvers. We had neither helmets nor provisions, and our front ammunition pouches contained only blanks. But since we were in an area that harbored real danger, our rear ammunition pouches held 30 rounds of live ammunition. Unfortunately, it was sealed so securely that it was virtually inaccessible." Cf. Araki Kazuo, Rokokyo no ippatsu: Jugun kenpei no shuki [A shot fired at Marco Polo Bridge: Memoirs of a military policeman] (Tokyo: Hayashi Shoten, 1968), p. 80f.

  8. Jin, Zhenzhong, "Moto Ryokokyo Shubi Daitaicho Jin Zhenzhong kaiso" [Recollections of Jin Zhenzhong, formerly a battalion commander stationed at the Marco Polo Bridge] Chuo Koron (December 1987), p. 209f.

  9. There were no Japanese tanks in the area until reinforcements arrived toward the end of July. Cf. Hata, "Jin Zhenzhong kaiso no kaisetsu to bunseki," p. 215.

  10. Jin, op. cit., p. 209.

  11. Hata, Rokokyo jiken no kenkyu, p. 140.

  12. According to Hata, "the soldier who was reported missing (Private Shimura) returned to his unit within 20 minutes, at about 11:00 p.m. on July 7. The Beijing Special Agency sent a report to that effect to the Chinese authorities at about 2:00 a.m. on July 8. Thereafter, Japanese troops no longer had a pretext for gaining entry into Wanping (they occupied the castle on July 29)." Cf. Hata, "Jin Zhenzhong kaiso no kaisetsu to bunseki," p. 215. See also Hata's citations from "The Memoirs of Wang Lingzhai" in his Nicchu senso shi [History of the Second Sino-Japanese War] (Tokyo: Kawade Shobo Shinsha, 1961), p. 173. Note further that when Wang Lingzhai received the aforementioned report, Maj. Sakurai Tokutaro (adviser to the 29th Nationalist Army) proceeded to Wanping, accompanied by Wang, Lin Gengyu (member of the Foreign Relations Committee) and Teradaira Tadasuke, an aide on the staff of the Beijing Special Agency). The party departed from the Beijing Special Agency at about 4:00 a.m. on July 8, the purpose of their journey being to convince Jin Zhenzhong, commander of the Chinese troops in Wanping, to prevent the hostilities from escalating. See Teradaira, op. cit., 104.

  13. Officers of the 29th Army insisted that none of the units under them had ever been sent outside the Marco Polo Bridge area. For statements made by Vice-Commander Qin Dechun and 37th Army Commander Feng Zhian, see Araki, op. cit., pp. 83, 87. However, at 5:30 a.m., when the Japanese began to retaliate, the 39th Army fled to the Marco Polo Bridge in front of Wanping. Also, a notebook in the pocket of a Chinese soldier found in a trench under the bridge contained the following information about his superiors: "Gen. Song Zheyuan, commander, 29th Army; Lt. Gen. Feng Zhian, commander, 37th Division; Maj. Gen. He Fengji, 110th Brigade; Col. Ji Xingwen, commander, 219th Infantry Regiment; Maj. Jin Zhenzhong, commander, 3rd Battalion; Capt. Geng Xixun, commander, 11th Company." For further details, see Teradaira, op. cit., pp. 134f., 137. Note further that Jin Zhenzhong stated that the Japanese commenced firing between 11:00 p.m. on July 7 and 2:00 a.m. on the following morning. However, the fact is that the Japanese did not begin shelling until 5:30 a.m. on July 8 (See Jin, op. cit., p. 209f.)

  14. Tokyo Saiban Shiryo Kankokai [IMTFE Document Publishing Group], Tokyo Saiban kyakka miteishutsu bengogawa shiryo [Defense exhibits rejected by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East or prepared for but not submitted to] (Tokyo: Kokusho Kankokai, 1995), vol. 7, p. 296.

  15. See Hata, Rokokyo jiken no kenkyu, p. 171 and Nakamura Akira, Dai Toa Senso e no michi [The road to the Greater East Asian War] (Tokyo: Tendensha, 1990), p. 395.

  16. Nakamura, op. cit., p. 402f.

  17. Tokyo Saiban Shiryo Kankokai, op. cit., vol. 3, p. 56f.

  18. Ibid., p. 57.

  19. The following contemporaneous books authored by Americans refer to "the massacre of Japanese men, women and children at Tungchow by Chinese soldiers" or the "Tungchow massacre:" Frederick Williams, Behind the News in China (New York: Nelson Hughes Co., 1938), p. 22 and George C. Bruce, Shanghai's Undeclared War (Shanghai: Mercury Press, 1937), p. 10.

  20. Nitta Mitsuo, ed., Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban Sokkiroku [Reports of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East] (Tokyo: Yushodo Shoten, 1968), vol.5, p. 171.

  21. Ibid., p. 172.

  22. Ibid., p. 173.

  23. Shiba Sen, Shiki [Ssu-ma Ch'ien's historical records], trans. Odake Fumio and Odake Takeo (Tokyo: Chikuma Gakugei Bunko, 1995), vol. 2, p. 16.

  24. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 282.

  25. Ibid., p. 138.

  26. Yang Jialuo, ed., Xinxiao zizhitongjian zhu [Revised commentary of comprehensive mirror for aid in government] (Taipei: World Publishing Co., 1962).

  27. Abend, op. cit., pp. 66f., 72.

  28. Sasaki Toichi, Aru gunjin no jiden [Autobiography of a career officer] (Tokyo: Futsusha, 1963), p. 174.

  29. Agnes Smedley, Idai naru michi [The great road], trans. Abe Tomoji (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1955) vol. 2, p. 213.

  30. Tanaka Seigen, Tanaka Seigen Jiden [Autobiography of Tanaka Seigen] (Tokyo: Bungei Shunju, 1993), p. 283.

  31. Edgar Snow, Chugoku no akaihoshi [Red Star Over China], trans. Usami Seijiro (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1964), p. 239.

  32. Smedley, op. cit., p. 263.

  33. See Nicholas D. Kristof and Sheryl Wudun, China Wakes: The Struggle for the Soul of a Rising Power (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), pp. 73ff. The authors include descriptions of horrendous crimes: "Bodies were humiliated and destroyed, so that while the killing was awful, what came next was even worse. Take the case of three women: Lu Yu, of Siyang Commune; Huang Shaoping, a teacher at Guangjiang River Elementary School; Chen Guolian, of Hepu County's Shikang Township. After they were beaten to death, sticks were poked into their vaginas and their corpses were left naked along the roadside."

  34. Tokyo Saiban Shiryo Kankokai, op. cit., vol. 3, p. 6.

  35. Claude Farrere, "Shina Kiko" (Travels in China) in Shina (China), Toa Dobunkai, (September 1938), p. 193. This article also appeared in the May 1938 issue of Revue des deux mondes.

  36. Ibid., p. 193.

  37. Toa Dobunkai, ed., Shin Shina gensei yoran [The current situation in China] (Tokyo: Toa Dobunkai, 1938), p. 65.

  38. See Edouard Helsey, "Shina Jihen mita mama" [Witness to the Second Sino Japanese War] in Kokusai panfuretto tsushin [International news pamphlet] 1120 (01 August 1938), p. 14f. Helsey was a correspondent for Gringoire, a French weekly. The article's original title was "La guerre en Chine."

  39. See Toa Dobunkai, op. cit., p. 772 and BN, p. 11ff.

  40. As of July 12, Chinese forces numbered 50,000 as opposed to only 5,000 Japanese troops (a Special Naval Landing Forces unit). Cf. Boei Kenshujo Senshishitsu [Defense Research Institute, Military History Department], Senshi sosho: Shina jihen rikugun sakusen (1) Showa 13 nen 1 gatsu made [Military history series: Army operations during the Second Sino Japanese War, Part 1: 1933-1938] (Tokyo: Asagumo Shinbunsha, 1975), p. 261f.

  41. Toa Dobunkai, op. cit., p. 71ff.

  42. The China Year Book 1938 (Shanghai: The North-China Daily News & Herald, 1938), p. 352. Similar accounts appear in Farrere, op. cit., p. 194 and Helsey, op. cit., p. 25.

  43. Chugaku shakai: Rekishi [Middle school social studies: History] (Tokyo: Kyoiku Shuppan, 1999), p. 250.

  44. See Eto Jun, Wasureta koto to wasuresaserareta koto [What we have forgotten and what we have been forced to forget] (Tokyo: Bungei Shunju, 1979), p. 280. Chinese troops, already superior in number, received further reinforcements at the rapid rate of one division per day. By early September, nearly 40,000 Japanese soldiers had landed, but the Chinese had 190,000 men on the front lines alone, and forces at the rear had swelled to 270,000. Seventy thousand Japanese troops had landed by early October, but by then the Chinese forces were 700,000 men strong.

  45. Japanese troops required three months to bring the second Shanghai Incident to an end. According to Boei Kenshujo Senshishitsu, op. cit., approximately 20,000 Japanese soldiers died in battle, and some 60,000 were wounded. Three thousand Japanese troops were killed during the first Shanghai Incident, but the statistics from the second incident defy comparison. They represented losses of life not seen since the Russo-Japanese War.

  46. Boei Kenshujo Senshishitsu, op. cit.

  47. Erwin Wickert, ed., The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), p. 9.

  48. SMBN, vol. 2, pp. 185, 210.

  49. Ibid., p. 133.

  50. SMBN, vol. 1, p. 428f.

  51. "Nakashina Homen Gun meirei" [Central China Area Army Order] in ibid., p. 432.

  52. "Nankinjo koryaku yoryo" in ibid., p. 433.

  53. "Nankin nyujogo ni okeru shochi" [Course of action to be taken upon entering Nanking] in ibid., p. 432.

  54. "Nankinjo no koryaku oyobi nyujo ni kansuru chui jiko" [Precautions to be taken when attacking and entering Nanking) in ibid., p. 434.

  55. Testimony of Maj. Nakayama Yasuto, Central China Area Army staff officer, in Hora Tomio, ed., Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu (1) Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen [Source material relating to the Nanking Massacre during the Second Sino-Japanese War: Sources from the International Military Tribunal for the Far East] (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 1985), vol. 1, p. 203.

  56. Testimony of Lt. Gen. Nakazawa Mitsuo, 16th Division chief of staff, in ibid., p. 245.
CHAPTER 2: NANKING BEFORE THE FALL
  1. For the text of Wang Jingwei's speech, "The Final Juncture," delivered on July 31, 1937, see Matsumoto Shigeharu, Shanhai jidai [Shanghai Sojourn], vol. 3 (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1975), pp. 170-174, especially p. 172f.

  2. See Wakokubon seishi shinjo [Authorized history (reprinted in Japan)] (Tokyo: Kyuko Shoin, 1971), p. 1325. The purpose of the scorched-earth strategy was to leave no food, shelter or potential laborers behind for enemy troops to use. The Jin Shu [History of the Jin Dynasty] contains an exhortation to fortify cities, then to reduce all the land around them to ashes so that nothing remains for an invading army to steal or use. This exhortation is an indication that this strategy was employed at least as far back as the 4th century. Furthermore, we know that it endured well into the 20th century, since it was used by Chiang Kai-shek in the Battle of Nanking. Cf. Higashinakano Shudo, "Nankin koza dai ikkai: Sanko sakusen to Nankin gyakusatsu - Nankin no rekishi ni miru senpo" [First Nanking lecture: Sanguang (three-all) strategy and the Nanking Massacre - tactics used throughout Nanking's history] in Getsuyo Hyoron [Monday review] (January 2000).

  3. "Nenpyo (1798)" [Chronology for 1798] in Tanigawa Michio and Mori Masao, eds., Chugoku minshu hanranshi [The history of people's rebellions in China] (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1982), vol. 3, p.337.

  4. See "Li Zongren kaioku roku" in SMBN, revised edition, vol. 1, p. 639.

  5. Ibid.

  6. Ibid.

  7. For "undefended places," see Kokusai Hogakkai hen [International Law Society of Japan], Kokusaiho jiten [International law dictionary] (Tokyo: Kajima Shuppankai, 1982), p. 661.

  8. For Bai Chongxi's views, see "Li Zongren kaioku roku" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 639.

  9. Ibid. (for statements made by He Yingqin, Xu Yongchang, von Falkenhausen and Tang Shengzhi).

  10. Ibid.

  11. Ibid., p. 640.

  12. "Nanking Prepares to Resist Attack," New York Times (01 December 1937).

  13. EABN, Part 3 in Kaiko (June 1984), p. 6.

  14. New York Times (07 December 1937).

  15. See Kasahara Tokushi, "Tillman Durdin shi kara no kikigaki" [Conversations with Tillman Durdin] in Nankin jiken shiryoshu 1: Amerika kankei shiryo hen [Nanking Incident Source Material: American References], trans. Nankin Jiken Chosa Kenkyukai hen [Nanking Incident Research Group] (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 1992), vol. 1, p. 572.

  16. Tillman Durdin, "Chinese Make Stand," New York Times (08 December 1937).

  17. Ibid.

  18. Tillman Durdin, "300 Chinese Slain on a Peak Ringed by Fires Set by Foe", New York Times (09 December 1937).

  19. Abend, "Japanese in Drive to Take Nanking after Ultimatum," New York Times (10 December 1937).

  20. Durdin, "300 Chinese Slain on Peak," op. cit.

  21. As Durdin's article dispatched from Nanking on December 9 indicates, the scorched-earth tactic was a Chinese defense strategy.

  22. Toa Dobunkai, op. cit., p. 760.

  23. Ibid. Cf. Wickert, op. cit., p. 26.

  24. Lily Abegg, "Wie wir aus Nanking fluchteten: Die letzten Tage in der Haupstadt Chinas" in Frankfurter Zeitung (19 December 1937).

  25. Ichiki Yoshimichi, ed., Nankin [Nanking] (Nanking Japanese Chamber of Commerce, 1941), p. 22.

  26. The China Year Book 1938, (Shanghai: The North China Daily News & Herald, March 1938), p. 1.

  27. Ko Bunyu, Ari no mama no Chugoku [The Real China] (Tokyo: Nihon Bungeisha, 1996), p. 56.

  28. Abegg, op. cit.

  29. The 09 December 1937 edition of the Osaka Asahi Shinbun reported that "the valley containing Mausoleum Park is now a sea of furious flames." The New York Times carried a story reading, in part: "Rumors of a plan to burn down Nanking, though they are daily officially denied, are causing terror among many sections of the populace." Cf. Durdin, "Chinese Make Stand," op. cit.

  30. Abegg, op. cit.

  31. Ibid.

  32. EABN, Part 3 in Kaiko (June 1984), p. 7.

  33. Abegg, op. cit.

  34. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee: November 1937 to April 1939, in Miner Bates' Papers, Record Group No. 10, Box 102, Folder 867, p. 5.

  35. Cf. Testimony of Hidaka Shinrokuro, Japanese consul general in Shanghai, at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, "Sanjuman hinanmin no chichi, Jakino sojo wo tou" [A visit with Father Jacquinot, protector of 300,000 refugees] in Hora, op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 185, 271 for a description of the Jacquinot Zone in Shanghai; Tsu Y.Y., "The Christian Church in War-time Service," China Quarterly (Winter 1938-39), p. 79.

  36. For information about members of the Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone, see Tillman Durdin, "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking after Chinese Command Fled," New York Times (09 January 1938); Wickert, op. cit., p. 43.

  37. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee, p. 3.

  38. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 125f.

  39. The China Year Book 1939 (Shanghai: The North-China Daily News & Herald, 1939), p. 562. The Safety Zone was approximately the size of New York's Central Park.

  40. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 130.

  41. "Nanking was transformed into a huge fortress." Yomiuri Shinbun (02 December 1937, evening edition) in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 642.

  42. Durdin, "All Captives Slain," New York Times (18 December 1937).

  43. Durdin, "Chinese Make Stand." Note further that Durdin's coverage of the Nanking Safety Zone included the following: "The movement of noncombatants elsewhere [in the city] will be banned, except for persons holding special permits to be indicated by a symbol on yellow arm bands."

  44. Tokyo Nichinichi Shinbun (08 December 1937) in BN, p. 273.

  45. John Rabe's letter to Dr. Rosen dated January 30, 1938 in Hsu Shuhsi, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone (Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh, 1939), p. 114.

  46. Harold J. Timperley, ed., What War Means: The Japanese Terror in China (Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1969), reprint of 1938 edition, p. 143.

  47. Tokyo Asahi Shinbun (08 December 1937) in Meiji Taisho Showa Shinbun Kenkyukai [Meiji, Taisho, Showa Period Newspaper Research Group], Shinbun shusei Showa hennenshi: Showa 12 nendoban IV [Annual chronology from newspapers in the Showa era: 1937 Edition] (Tokyo: Shinbun Shiryo Shuppan, 1990), vol. 4, 619. This information was disseminated by the Domei News Agency on the basis of an Associated Press wire sent from New York on December 7.

  48. Encrypted telegram (No. 1007) sent by Gray and dated 11:00 a.m., December 12, in Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 94.

  49. Archibald T. Steele, "Chiang Quits Nanking as Foes Advance," Chicago Daily News (08 December 1937), in Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 459.

  50. Tokyo Asahi Shinbun (06 December 1937), in Meiji Taisho Showa Shinbun Kenkyukai, op. cit., vol. 4, p. 590.

  51. For details about Commander-in-Chief Matsui's gift of 10,000 to the International Committee in Nantao, Shanghai, see the testimony of Shanghai Consul General Hidaka Shinrokuro at the Tokyo Trials, in Hora, op. cit., vol. 4, p. 185. For French authorities' plans for and attitude toward the Jacquinot Zone, see ibid., p. 185f.

  52. Tokyo Asahi Shinbun (06 December 1937), in Meiji Taisho Showa Shinbun Kenkyukai, op. cit., vol. 4, p. 590.

  53. "Nankin anzen chitai fushonin seimei" [Announcement of refusal to recognize Nanking Safety Zone], Gaiko Jiho [Foreign Affairs Review], No. 794 (01 January 1938), p. 340.

  54. Ibid.

  55. Ibid.

  56. "Foreigners Urged to Evacuate; Notification Sent to Shanghai Consular Association," Osaka Asahi Shinbun (09 December 1937) in Meiji Taisho Showa Shinbun Kenkyukai, op. cit., vol. 4, p. 638.

  57. "Fleeing Chinese Soldiers Refused Entry; Hostilities Continue on Outskirts of Nanking," Tokyo Asahi Shinbun (10 December 1937), in Meiji Taisho Showa Shinbun Kenkyukai, op. cit., vol. 4, p. 645.

  58. Durdin, "300 Chinese Slain on a Peak Ringed by Fires Set by Foe," New York Times (09 December 1937).

  59. EABN, Part 4 in Kaiko (July 1984), p. 8.
CHAPTER 3: ASSAULT ON THE GATES OF NANKING
  1. Hora, op. cit., p. 176.

  2. For the China Area Army's organization chart and staff list, see SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 685-725, especially p. 696. During the Russo-Japanese War, which took place right before Japan signed the Hague Convention of 1907 Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, four legal scholars accompanied Japanese troops to Russia. Thus began a tradition, which continued with the assignment of Saito Yoshie, doctor of law, to China. See Shinoda Harusaku, "Hokushi jihen to rikusen hoki" Gaiko Jiho [Foreign Affairs Review], No. 788 (01 October 1937), p. 50f.

  3. "Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land", in Yamamoto Soji, Kokusai Joyakushu 1995 [Anthology of International Treaties: 1995] (Tokyo: Yuhikaku, 1995), pp. 510-513, especially p. 512.

  4. Durdin, "All Captives Slain," New York Times (18 December 1937).

  5. Shimada Katsumi: "Do not destroy the Zhongshan Mausoleum."

  6. Georg Rosen, "Nankings Ubergang, 20. Januar 1938", in Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 203.

  7. Steele reports that the International Committee proposed a two-day cease-fire. See "Death Rains on Nanking in Furious Bombardment," Chicago Daily News (10 December 1937).

  8. Entry for December 10, 1937, in "Yamazaki Masao nikki" [Journal of Yamazaki Masao] (major) in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 289.

  9. "Nankinjo koryaku yoryo", in ibid., p. 433.

  10. In China, the practice of annihilating enemy troops who refuse to surrender is called “jé(tucheng: literally, "butcher the city"). The entry in the 13-volume Dai kanwa jiten (‘势˜aŽ«“T) edited by Morohashi Tetsuji draws on the chapter of Xunzi that relates to military affairs for the example it gives: "Do not obliterate cities." (In this case, "obliterate" means destroying the walls of a city and slaughtering its residents.) Xunzi, who flourished during the 3rd century BC, cautions virtuous men to refrain from obliterating cities and their inhabitants. The word "annihilate" (“j‚é), as the aforementioned note tells us, describes attackers' acts of destroying a resisting enemy's city walls, and then slaughtering the inhabitants of that city, just as they would animals. There is a clear distinction between tucheng and ”²é (bacheng), which means simply to storm or capture a city. Chinese military leaders adopted the Œ˜•ÇŽ–ì (jianbi qingye) or "fortify and burn" strategy, which, according to the same dictionary, describes a military tactic whereby city walls are strengthened and fields burned, leaving no spoils for the vanquishing enemy. When this strategy was employed, conquering armies found no food, shelter or laborers. We know that jianbi qingye dates back to the 4th century AD, since W‘ [Jinshu, or History of the Jin Dynasty] contains a reference to it: "All the city walls were fortified, and all the fields burned, so that nothing remained." It is common knowledge that the strategy persisted until the 20th century, when it was adopted by Chiang Kai-shek for the Battle of Nanking. See Morohashi Tetsuji, ed., Dai kanwa jiten [Comprehensive Chinese-Japanese dictionary] (Tokyo: Taishukan, 1955-60), vol. 6, p. 162.

  11. Hohei dai 36 rentai [36th Infantry Regiment], "Chushi homen ni okeru kodo gaiyo: 1937 nen 9 gatsu kokonoka - 1939 nen 7 gatsu 11 nichi" [Operations in central China between September 9, 1937 and July 11, 1939] (mimeographed on October 1, 1939), p. 26; BN, p. 175. For a description of the situation at Guanghua Gate, see Sasaki Motokatsu, Yasen Yubinki [Field post office flag] (Tokyo: Gendai Shiryo Center Shuppankai, 1973), p. 223.

  12. Cheng Kuilang, "Nankinjo fukukaku jinchi kochiku to shujo sento" [The complex architecture of Nanking's walls and the defensive battle] in SMBN, vol. 2, pp. 485-494, especially p. 492.

  13. Testimony of Ouchi Yoshihide (Defense Exhibit No. 2686) in Hora, op. cit., p. 237f.

  14. For details concerning hostilities at Guanghua Gate, see BN, p. 175ff.

  15. For more information concerning soldiers' hiding places, see Nanjing: Tourist Map, (Jiangsu: Jiangsu People's Publishing, 1992), which explains that "Zhonghua Gate, built in the 14th century, it consists of 3 citadels, 4 archways and 27 caves big enough for hiding 3000 soldiers."

  16. For details about the hostilities at Zhonghua Gate, see BN, p. 218f.

  17. "Yamazaki Masao nikki" entry dated December 14, 1937 in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 295.

  18. Testimony of Osugi Hiroshi (Defense Exhibit No. 2238) in Hora, op. cit., p. 235.

  19. Cheng Kuilang, op. cit. in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 494; "Li Zongren kaioku roku" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 640.

  20. Wickert, op. cit. p. 63.

  21. In a journal entry dated December 17, Maj.-Gen. Iinuma Mamoru writes that he observed approximately 20 units of enemy soldiers, comprising, 10,000 men, in the neighborhood of Nanking. Cf. SMNB, vol. 1, p. 159. Tillman Durdin wrote the following on this subject:

    It is difficult to say just what the strength of the Chinese Army in and around Nanking was. Some observers estimated that there were as many as sixteen divisions participating in the battle for the city. This could be true. Chinese divisions even in normal times have an average of only 5,000 men. The battered divisions that defended Nanking were, possibly, at least in some cases, composed of only 2,000 or 3,000 men each. It is fairly safe to say that some 50,000 troops took part - and were trapped - in the defense of Nanking.

    It is very likely that the source of Durdin's figures was a prior briefing. He continues:

    The Japanese themselves announced that during the first three days of cleaning up Nanking 15,000 Chinese soldiers were rounded up. At the time, it was contended that 25,000 more were still hiding out in the city.

    Durdin adds that "about 20,000 were executed." Cf. Durdin, "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled," op. cit.

  22. Tang Shengzhi, "Nankin boei no keika" [The Defense of Nanking] in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 621-626, especially p. 624.

  23. "Nanjing baoweizhan zhandou xiangbao (1937 nian 12 yue) Nanjing weishujun zhandou xiangbao" [Battle report: Battle waged in defense of Nanking: Nanking Garrison, December 1937] in ibid., pp. 608-614, especially pp. 609, 614.

  24. Kasahara, "Tillman Durdin shi kara no kikigaki" in op. cit., p. 572.

  25. "Makihara Nobuo nikki" [Journal of Makihara Nobuo] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 406. Makihara was a private first class in the 23rd Infantry Regiment.

  26. Kasahara, "Tillman Durdin shi kara no kikigaki" in op. cit., p. 569.

  27. Kasahara, "Archibald Steele shi kara no kikigaki" [Conversations with Archibald Steele] (September 4, 1987), in Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 584.

  28. Abend, op. cit., pp. 170, 176. He describes groups of regular Chinese soldiers as "bandit armies" and the Chinese Army as a whole as a "predatory organization."

  29. "Nanjing baoweizhan zhandou xiangbao" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 614.

  30. Ibid.

  31. Ibid.

  32. BN, pp. 348, 358.

  33. Cheng Kuilang, op. cit. in SNBM, vol. 2, p. 494.

  34. "Nanjing baoweizhan zhandou xiangbao" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 613.

  35. "Li Zongren kaioku roku" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 640.

  36. Durdin, "All Captives Slain," op. cit.

  37. Steele, "Nanking Massacre Story," Chicago Daily News (15 December 1937).

  38. Kasahara, "Tillman Durdin shi kara no kikigaki" in op. cit., p. 571.

  39. Kasahara, "Archibald Steele shi kara no kikigaki" in op. cit., p. 577.

  40. B.K., "Events and Comments: The War in China" in The China Journal, XXVIII (January 1938).

  41. "Outstanding Events in the Sino-Japanese War: A Day-to-Day Summary" in The China Weekly Review (29 January 1938).

  42. "Enemy stragglers converging at Anqing," Osaka Asahi Shinbun (26 December 1937).
CHAPTER 4: THE MEANING OF "DISPOSITION OF PRISONERS"
  1. Rikugun hohei gakko [Army Infantry School], "Tai Shina gun sentoho no kenkyu" [A study of combat methods used against Chinese troops], 1933 in Fujiwara Akira, Shinpan Nankin daigyakusatsu [The Nanking Massacre: New edition] (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1992), p. 26.

  2. Hora Tomio, Nankin daigyakusatsu no shomei [Proof of the Nanking Massacre] (Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1987), p. 316.

  3. Fujiwara, op. cit., p. 26.

  4. "Article 8 of the Regulations Annexed to the Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land" in Yamamoto, op. cit., p. 511.

  5. For "Kosen hoki kanrei ni kansuru kisoku" [Application of customary rules of warfare], a notice issued by the vice-minister of war on August 5, 1937 (Top Secret China Army Notice No. 198), see Defense Research Institute, Army Operations During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Part 2, p. 465; SMBN, vol. 1, p. 457.

  6. Ibid., p. 465f.

  7. Ibid., p. 466.

  8. "Article 23 of Regulations Annexed to the Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land" in Yamamoto, op. cit., p. 512.

  9. "Dai 13 shidan sento shoho besshi oyobi fuzu" [13th Division battle instructions] in Hata, Nankin Jiken [The Nanking Incident] (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1992), p. 68f. CHAPTER 5: POINTS IN DISPUTE (1) 1. Kojima Noboru, Nicchu senso [The Sino-Japanese War] (Tokyo: Bunshun Bunko, 1993 (first printing, 1984)), vol. 4, p. 225. 2. Hohei Dai 66 Rentai Dai 1 Daitai [1st Battalion, 66th Infantry Regiment], Sento shoho [Battle report] in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 560- 572, especially p. 567. 3. Sento shoho: Showa 12 nen 12 gatsu toka kara 12 gatsu 13 nichi made [Battle report: December 10-13, 1937] of the 1st Battalion, 66th Infantry Regiment contains five types of battalion orders, including one issued at 2:30 p.m. on December 12. It also contains five types of 66th Infantry Regiment orders, one of which was issued at 12:20 a.m. on December 13. The recipient is designated on the first of the five battalion orders, but the others are marked simply "transmitted verbally and later in writing." 4. "114 shimei ko 62 go dai 114 shidan meirei" [114th Division Order No. A62] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 450. 5. "Ho dai 128 ryo mei dai 66 go: uyokutai meirei" [128th Infantry Brigade Order No. 66 (right flank order)] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 451. 6. "114 shimei ko dai 59 go dai 114 shidan meirei" [114th Division Order No. A59] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 449. 7. "Dai 13 shidan sento shoho besshi oyobi fuzu" in Hata, op. cit. 8. Oyake Isaburo was deputy commander of the 1st Platoon, 4th Company. See Ara Kenichi, "Jorui: Heishitachi no Nanking jiken 19" [Fortress: Soldiers' recollections of the Nanking Incident 19] in Maru (July 1990), p. 213. 9. According to a battalion order issued at 2:30 p.m. on December 12, at Zhonghua Gate, "some enemy officers refused to surrender, opting to fight to the death; others shot their subordinates in the back when they attempted to surrender." See SMBN, vol. 1, p. 561. The Chinese supervisory unit was notorious for its habit of shooting soldiers who attempted to escape or surrender. 10. Battalion order issued at 2:30 p.m. on December 12, ibid. The order was issued (and signed by) Captain Shibuya, deputy commander, 1st Battalion. 11. Battalion order issued at 2:30 p.m. on December 12; 66th Infantry Regiment order issued at 12:20 a.m. on December 13 in ibid., p. 562ff. 12. "Oyake Isaburo daiichi shotaicho dairi no shogen" [Testimony of Oyake Isaburo, deputy commander, 1st Platoon] in Ara, op. cit., p. 212. 13. Ibid., p. 213. 14. Battalion order issued at 2:30 p.m. on December 12 in ibid., p. 561. 15. Battalion order issued at 7:50 p.m. on December 12 in ibid., p. 562. 16. Nishizawa Benkichi, Warera no tairiku senki: Hohei dai 66 rentai dai 3 chutai no ayumi [Our battles in China: History of 3rd Company, 66th Regiment], self-published, 1972, p. 92. 17. Ibid., p. 97. 18. Oyake, in Ara, op. cit., p. 213. 19. Ibid. 20. Ara Kenichi, who has pointed out how difficult it is to accurately depict the events that transpire during hostilities, believes that the battle report prepared by the 1st Battalion is more fiction than fact. Cf. Ara, "Jorui: Heishitachi no Nanking jiken" in op. cit, p. 209. 21. Oyake, in Ara, op. cit., p. 213 22. Ibid., p. 97. 23. Testimony of Shimada Katsumi (commander, 2nd Machine-gun Company, 33rd Infantry Regiment) in BN, p. 163. 24. Oyake in Ara, op. cit., p. 213. CHAPTER 6: POINTS IN DISPUTE (2): "TAKE NO PRISONERS" 1. See "Nakajima Kesago nikki" [Journal of Nakajima Kesago] (16th Division commander), in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 197-251, especially p. 220. 2. Fujiwara, op. cit., p. 30f. 3. Hata, The Nanking Incident, pp. 69, 117. 4. Testimony of Onishi Hajime, Shanghai Expeditionary Force staff officer (later head of the Nanking Special Agency) in Ara Kenichi, Kikigaki: Nankin jiken [Interviews with witnesses to the Nanking incident] (Tokyo: Tosho Shuppansha, 1987), pp. 6-23, especially p. 10. 5. See Chapter 4, Note 1. 6. "Dai 13 shidan sento shoho besshi oyobi fuzu" in Hata, op. cit., p. 69. 7. "Nakajima Kesago nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 220. 8. "Article 8 of the Regulations Annexed to the Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land" in Yamamoto, op. cit., p. 511. 9. "Iinuma Mamoru nikki" [Journal of Iinuma Mamoru] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 156f. 10. The several thousand Chinese soldiers who surrendered near Xianhe Gate, "waving white flags," bore strips of cloth on their chests on which "Our unit will fight to the death to defend the capital" had been written. The unit comprised regular soldiers and civilian volunteers, all of whom were wearing uniforms. For details, see the testimony of 2nd Lt. Sawada Masahisa in BN, pp. 254-257, especially p. 255f. For details of the conflict at Xianhe Gate, see Chapter 8, p. 155 of this book. 11. "Sento shoho" [Battle report], No. 12, 38th Infantry Regiment (December 14, 1937) in BN, pp. 483-488, especially p. 488. A chart is attached to the end of this battle report, on which is written: "The 200-man 10th Company received orders to guard the area around Yaohua Gate. There, at about 8:30 a.m. on [December] 14, several thousand enemy soldiers were observed approaching, waving white flags. At 1:00 p.m. said soldiers were disarmed and transported to Nanking." Sasaki Motokatsu, who ran the field post office established after the fall of Nanking describes an encounter with "large groups of disarmed Chinese soldiers" in front of Zhongshan Gate on December 17. (See Sasaki Motokatsu, op. cit., p. 220. Furthermore, Staff Officer Sakakibara Kazue attests to having "escorted four to five thousand prisoners to the Central Prison (No. 1 Penitentiary) in Nanking on December 16 and 17, where they were confined." See BN, p. 324. CHAPTER 7: POINTS IN DISPUTE (3): WE ARE TOLD TO KILL ALL PRISONERS; ALL UNITS DESPERATELY SHORT OF FOOD 1. "Yamada Senji Nikki" [Journal of Yamada Senji ] (Hohei Dai 103 Ryodancho, Rikugun shosho) [Major general and commander of 103rd Infantry Brigade] in SMBN, vol. 2, pp. 283-338, especially p. 330 (journal entry dated December 11). 2. Ibid. (journal entry dated December 12). 3. Yamada had been ordered to capture the forts at Wulongshan and Mufushan, and to facilitate the advance of the Sasaki Detachment. When he received his orders, the 65th Regiment and the 3rd Battalion, 19th Mountain Artillery Regiment departed, at 5:00 p.m. Theirs was a night march, as it was already dark. 4. Maj.-Gen. Yamada had planned to spend the night at Xiaqijie, "but all houses there had been burned to the ground - there were no usable buildings." See SMBN, vol. 2, p. 331. 5. "Yamada Senji nikki" [Journal of Yamada Senji] in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 331. 6. Ibid. 7. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki (Hohei dai 65 Rentaicho: Hohei taisa)" [Journal of Col. Morozumi Gyosaku: Commander, 65th Infantry Regiment] in SMBN, vol. 2, pp. 339-341, especially p. 339. 8. "Yamada Senji nikki," SMBN, vol. 2, p. 331. 9. "Saito Jiro jinchu nikki" [War journal of Saito Jiro] (pseudonym, private first class) in Ono Kenji, Fujiwara Akira, Honda Katsuichi, eds., Nankin daigyakusatsu wo kiroku shita kogun heishitachi: Dai 13 shidan Yamada shitai heishi no jinchu nikki [Imperial Army soldiers' accounts of the Nanking Massacre: War journals kept by soldiers in the Yamada Detachment, 13th Division] (Tokyo: Otsuki Shoten, 1996), pp. 3-55, especially p. 37; "Endo Shigetaro jinchu nikki" [War journal of Endo Shigetaro] (pseudonym, private first class) in ibid., pp. 87-95, especially p. 89. 10. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 339; Ono et al., op. cit., pp. 255, 325, 351, 373. 11. "Miyamoto Shogo jinchu nikki" [War journal of Miyamoto Shogo] (pseudonym, 2nd lieutenant) in ibid., pp. 123-140, especially p. 133; "Amano Saburo gunji yubin" [Military mail posted by Amano Saburo] (pseudonym, 2nd lieutenant) in ibid., pp. 245-258, especially p. 251. 12. Testimony of Hirabayashi Sadaharu in Suzuki Akira, Nankin daigyakusatsu no maboroshi [The Nanking Massacre illusion] (Tokyo: Bungei Shunju, 1982), p. 198. 13. The journal entry in "Yamada Senji nikki" cited by Suzuki Akira reads: "On December 15 I dispatched 2nd Lt. Honma to the Division regarding the disposition of the prisoners. We are told to kill them. All units are desperately short of food." Cf. ibid., p. 193. 14. "Yamada Senji nikki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 331. 15. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in ibid., p. 339. 16. See conclusion stated at end of Chapter 4. 17. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 339. 18. Ibid. 19. "Odera Takashi jinchu nikki" [War journal of Odera Takashi] (pseudonym, private first class) in Ono et al., op. cit., pp. 183-209, especially p. 196. 20. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 339. 21. "Endo Takaaki jinchu nikki" [War journal of Endo Takaaki] (pseudonym, 2nd lieutenant) in Ono et al., op. cit., pp. 211-229, especially p. 219. 22. "Miyamoto Shogo jinchu nikki" in ibid., p. 134. 23. "Nakano Masao jinchu nikki" [War journal of Nakano Masao] (pseudonym, private first class) in ibid., pp. 113-121, especially p. 116. 24. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 340. 25. Ibid., p. 339. 26. Ibid., p. 340. 27. Testimony of Navy Lt. Hashimoto Mochitsura in BN, p. 264. 28. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 340. 29. Ibid. 30. Testimony of Hirabayashi Sadaharu in Suzuki, op. cit., p. 196f. 31. "Araumi Kiyoe nikki" [Journal of Araumi Kiyoe] (pseudonym, private first class) in SMBN, vol. 2, pp. 342-346, especially p. 345. 32. Suzuki, op. cit., p. 196f. 33. "Morozumi Gyosaku shuki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 340. 34. Ibid. 35. "Meguro Fukuji jinchu nikki" [War journal of Meguro Fukuji] (pseudonym, corporal) in Ono et al., op. cit., pp. 359-374, especially p. 373. 36. Ibid. 37. "Endo Takaaki jinchu nikki" in ibid., p. 219. 38. Ibid., p. 219f. 39. Ibid., p. 220. 40. "Miyamoto Shogo jinchu nikki" in ibid., p. 134. 41. Ibid. 42. Testimony of Hirabayashi Sadaharu in Suzuki, op. cit., p. 198. 43. "Miyamoto Shogo jinchu nikki" in Ono et al., op. cit., p. 133f. 44. Ibid. CHAPTER 8: FIERCE BATTLES OUTSIDE THE WALLS OF NANKING AFTER THE FALL OF THE CITY 1. "Nakajima Kesago nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 220 (cited in Chapter 6, p. 115?). 2. "Sasaki Toichi shosho shiki (Hohei dai 30 ryodancho/rikugun shosho)" [Diary of Maj. Gen. Sasaki Toichi (Army major general and commander of 30th Infantry Brigade)] in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 263-276, especially p. 270. 3. Ibid. Maj. Gen. Sasaki continues with a comment about Chinese troops: "The enemy at hand was Chiang Kai-shek's pet division - rightly so, since they fought most bravely till the bitter end." 4. "Hohei dai 38 rentai 'Sento shoho' dai 11 go: 12.12.12. yori 12.12.13 made" [Battle report No. 11 prepared by 38th Infantry Regiment and covering December 12-13, 1937] in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 475-483, especially p. 479. 5. "Sasaki Toichi shosho shiki" in ibid., p. 271. 6. Durdin, "All Captives Slain," op. cit. 7. "Sasaki Toichi shosho shiki" in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 271. 8. Ki 3 shi hensan iinkai [Committee for the compilation of the history of the 3rd Cavalry Regiment], Kihei dai 3 rentai shi [History of the 3rd Cavalry Regiment] (Tokyo: Kisankai, 1978), p. 157; BN, p. 251. 9. Ibid., p. 155. 10. Ibid. 11. Ki 3 shi hensan iinkai, op. cit., p. 158. 12. Ibid., p. 158. 13. Ibid., p. 158; testimony of Kato Masayoshi, clerk at 3rd Cavalry Regiment Headquarters in BN, p. 251. 14. "Iinuma Mamoru nikki" [Journal of Iinuma Mamoru] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 155. 15. Ibid., p. 156. 16. Testimony of Capt. Kodama Yoshio in BN, pp. 341, 344. 17. "Sento shoho" [Battle report], No. 11, 38th Infantry Regiment in SMBN, vol. 1, p.476. 18. Hata, Nankin jiken, p. 118. 19. "Sasaki Toichi shosho shiki" in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 272. 20. Testimony of Nishiura Setsuzo in BN, p. 164 21. "Iinuma Mamoru nikki," p. 155. 22. "Hohei dai 30 ryodan meirei (12.12.14)" [30th Infantry Brigade order (12/14/1937)] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 439. 23. Durdin, "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled," op. cit. 24. Excerpt from entry dated December 14, 1937 in war journal of Sgt. Shimizu Kazue, 38th Regiment, 16th Division in Hata, Nankin jiken, p. 120f. 25. Testimony of 2nd Lt. Muguruma Masajiro in EABN, Part 8 (November 1984), p. 7. 26. Muguruma Masajiro, Sekishunfu: Waga seishun no omoide [Memories of my youth], self-published, 1990, p. 391f. 27. "Hague Declaration Concerning Expanding Bullets" in Yamamoto, op. cit., p. 523. 28. EABN, Part 5 in Kaiko (August 1984), p. 8. 29. "Hohei dai 68 rentai dai 3 daitai 'Sento shoho' dai 8 go: 12.11.27. yori 12.12.13 made" [Battle report No. 8 prepared by 3rd Company, 68th Infantry Regiment and covering November 27 - December 13, 1937] in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 534-541, especially p. 538. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 33. "Yamazaki Masao nikki" (entry dated December 15, 1937), p. 296. 34. "Iinuma Mamoru nikki" (entry dated December 15, 1937), p. 158. CHAPTER 9: THE SWEEP AFTER THE FALL OF NANKING 1. Ichiki, op. cit., p.5. 2. See Chapter 2, p. {54}; Cf. Woodhead, The China Year Book 1939, p. 562. 3. Testimony of Capt. Sekiguchi Kozo and Capt. Hashimoto Mochiyuki in EABN, Part 10 (January 1985), p. 30. 4. Durdin, "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled," op. cit. 5. Durdin, "All Captives Slain," op. cit. 6. James Espy, "Nankin ni okeru jokyo" [The Situation in Nanking] in Hora, Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 151. 7. Testimony of Sumiya Iwane in EABN, Part 10 (December 1985), p. 31 8. Capt. Yasuyama Kodo (Army Medical Corps physician), Shanghai War Journal cited in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 417-426, especially p. 426. 9. Kasahara, "Archibald Steele shi kara no kikigaki" in op. cit., p. 582. 10. According to testimony of Muraoka Minoru and Enoki Katsuharu, "We did shoot at Chinese stragglers to lure them out, but we never used tank guns." Cf. BN, p. 194. 11. Statement made by William Webb (IMTFE presiding justice) at the Tokyo Trials on April 25, 1947 in Nitta, op. cit., vol. 5, p. 174. 12. Nanking Incident in Awaya Kentaro, Yoshida Yutaka, eds., Kokusai kensatsukyoku: Jinmon chosa [International Prosecutor's Office: Interrogations] (Tokyo: Nihon Tosho Center, 1993), vol. 50, pp. 31-94. See also interrogation of Lt. Gen. Nakazawa Mitsuo on April 30, 1946 in ibid., pp. 45, 52. 13. "Nankinjo koryaku yoryo" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 433. 14. Testimony of 2nd Lt. Muguruma Masajiro in EABN, Part 8 (November 1984), p. 7. 15. Testimony of Takeuchi Goro, medical corpsman, in ibid. 16. "Hohei dai 38 rentai 'Sento shoho' dai 10 go" [Battle report No. 10 prepared by 38th Infantry Regiment] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 485. 17. Response of 3rd Division Commander Fujita Susumu in Awaya et al., op. cit., pp. 60f., 64. 18. Testimony of Master Sgt. Fujita Kiyoshi in EABN, Part 6 (September 1984), p. 6. 19. Interview with 2nd Lt. Inukai Soichiro on February 3, 1998. 20. "Nankinjo koryaku yoryo" in SMBN, vol. 1, p.433. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid. 23. "Yamazaki Masao nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 296. 24. "Kisaki Hisashi nikki" [Journal of Kisaki Hisashi] (major and administrative staff officer, 16th Infantry Division) in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 307-329, especially p. 320. 25. Testimony of 1st Lieutenant Tsuchiya Shoji in BN, p. 179. 26. "Orikono Suetaro nikki" [Journal of Orikono Suetaro] (captain and commander of 3rd Company, 23rd Infantry Regiment) in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 337-340, especially p. 337. 27. "Hohei dai 38 rentai 'Sento shoho' dai 12 go" [Battle report No. 12 prepared by 38th Infantry Regiment] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 484-488, especially p. 484. 28. Hsu, op. cit., p. 15. 29. "Rokuryo sakumei: Ko dai 138 go uyokutai meirei: 12 gatsu 13 nichi gogo 4 ji han" [6th Brigade Operation Order A No. 138 (right-flank brigade order) issued at 4:30 p.m. on December 13] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 444. 30. "Nankinjo koryaku yoryo" in ibid., p. 444. 31. "Nankinjo no koryaku oyobi nyujo ni kansuru chui jiko" in ibid., p. 434. 32. "Soto jisshi ni kansuru chui" [Precautions to be taken when implementing the sweep] in ibid., p. 444f. 33. "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 106 go: hohei dai 7 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 13 nichi gogo 9 ji 30 pun" [7th Infantry Regiment Operation Order No. 106 issued at 9:30 p.m. on December 13] in ibid., p. 514. 34. "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 107 go: hohei dai 7 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 14 nichi gogo 1 ji 40 pun" [7th Infantry Regiment Operation Order No. 107 issued at 1:40 p.m. on December 14] in ibid., p. 515. 35. "Dai 9 shidan sototai meirei" [9th Division Sweep Unit Order] in ibid., p. 445. 36. "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 109 go: hohei dai 7 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 14 nichi gogo 10 ji" [7th Infantry Regiment Operation Order A No. 109 issued at 10:00 p.m. on December 14] in ibid., p. 515. 37. "Isa Kazuo nikki" [Journal of Isa Kazuo] (colonel and commander, 7th Infantry Regiment) in ibid., pp. 331-336, especially p. 334. 38. The battle report indicates that the 7th Regiment was near No. 1 Park, which was located southwest of the Gugong airfield. Cf. "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 105 go: hohei dai 7 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 13 nichi gogo 5 ji 30 pun" [7th Infantry Regiment Operation Order A No. 105 issued at 5:30 p.m. on December 13] in ibid., p. 514; "Hohei 7 sakumei ko dai 106 go" in ibid., p. 514. 39. "12 gatsu 13 nichi yori 12 gatsu 24 nichi made: Nankin jonai soto seika hyo: hohei dai 7 rentai" [7th Infantry Regiment: Chart showing results of Nanking sweep conducted from December 13 to December 24] in ibid., p. 524. 40. Durdin presented as facts events that never took place, e.g., "In one slaughter a tank gun was turned on a group of more than 100 soldiers at a bomb shelter near the Ministry of Communications. See Durdin, "All Captives Slain," op. cit. 41. "Mizutani So nikki 'Senjin' (Hohei dai 7 rentai dai 2 chutai, itto hei)" [Journal of Mizutani So (The Winds of War) (private first class, 2nd Company, 7th Infantry Regiment)] in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 393-399, especially 396. 42. "Inoie Matakazu nikki (Hohei dai 7 rentai dai ni chutai, itto hei)" [Journal of Inoie Matakazu (private first class, 7th Infantry Regiment) in ibid., pp. 363-375, especially p. 370. 43. "Isa Kazuo nikki" in ibid., p. 334. 44. "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 111 go: Hohei dai 7 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 15 nichi gogo 8 ji 30 pun" [7th Infantry Regiment Operation Order No. 111 issued at 8:30 p.m. on December 15] in ibid., p. 516. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid. 47. According to a 7th Regiment battle report, "I remained in my current location until my departure on the 26th." Cf. "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 117 go: Hohei dai 7 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 24 nichi gogo 6 ji" [7th Infantry Regiment Operation Order No. 117 issued at 6:00 p.m. on December 24] in ibid., p. 517. 48. Ibid. CHAPTER 10: REQUIREMENTS FOR PRISONER-OF-WAR STATUS 1. Hsu, op. cit., p. 1. 2. Ibid., p. 14f. 3. Ibid., p. 5. 4. See Hora, Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, pp. 40, 109. At the Tokyo Trials, Magee testified as follows: "We consider them as civilians." However, that would certainly have been in violation of the Hague Convention of 1907. For more information on this point, see Higashinakano Shudo, "Nankin no Shina hei shokei wa iho ka: Yoshida Yutaka kyoju no hihan ni kotaeru" [Were executions of Chinese soldiers in Nanking unlawful? A response to criticism levied by Prof. Yoshida Yutaka] in Getsuyo Hyoron (March 2000). 5. Adachi Sumio, Gendai Senso Hokiron [Theory of modern regulations governing war] (Tokyo: Keiseisha, 1979), p. 52f. 6. Yamamoto, op. cit., p. 511. 7. Okumiya Masatake, Watashi no mita Nankin jiken [Witness to the Nanking incident] (Tokyo: PHP Kenkyujo, 1997), p. 60. 8. Durdin, "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled," op. cit. 9. Tsutsui Jakusui, Gendai shiryo: Kokusai ho [Modern references: International law] (Tokyo: Yuhikaku, 1987), p. 184f. 10. Eidgenossisches Justiz und Polizeidepartment [Federal Justice and Police Department], ed., Zivilverteidigung [Civil defense] (Aarau: Miles-Verlag, 1969), p. 218. 11. Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 179f. 12. Ibid., p. 180. 13. Wickert, op. cit., p. 56. 14. "Orikono Suetaro nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 337-340, especially p. 337. 15. Hsu, op. cit., p. 15. 16. B. K., op. cit., p. 4. 17. Timperley, op. cit., p. 26f. 18. Hsu, op. cit., p. 12. 19. Erwin Wickert, ed., John Rabe, Der Gute Deutsche von Nanking (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1997), p. 107; Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 66. 20. Wickert, John Rabe, p. 107; Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 66. 21. Headquarters of the 7th Infantry Regiment were located at No. 1 Park, southwest of the airfield in the wall of Nanking, i.e., in the Dongchang street of Nanking. See "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 105 go" and "Ho 7 sakumei ko dai 106 go" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 513f. 22. "Iinuma Mamoru nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 157. 23. Wickert, John Rabe, p. 108; Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 67. 24. "Hohei dai 66 rentai meirei: 12 gatsu 13 nichi gogo 9 ji rei fun" [66th Infantry Regiment order issued at 9:00 p.m. on December 13] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 568. 25. James Espy, "Nankin ni okeru jokyo" [The Situation in Nanking] (January 1938) in Hora, Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 149ff. 26. For details about Steele's article, see Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 466. 27. Okumiya, op. cit., p. 50. 28. Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 182f. 29. John Rabe, Nankin no shinjitsu [The truth about Nanking], trans. Hirano Kyoko (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1997), p. 118. 30. Ibid. 31. Durdin, "All Captives Slain," op. cit. 32. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, pp. 417, 426. 33. Ibid., p. 288. 34. Timperley, op. cit., p. 38. 35. Hora, Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 152. 36. Ibid., p. 308. 37. Durdin, "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled," op. cit. 38. Abend, "Japanese Curbing Nanking Excesses" in New York Times (19 December 1937). 39. "Outstanding Events in the Sino-Japanese War," in The China Weekly Review (29 January 1938), p. 246. 40. A typical example of this was Rev. John Magee's testimony. He testified that on December 17, 1937, "I only personally witnessed the killing of one man." However, in his diary he wrote "The actual killing we did not see as it took place." Magee perjured himself at the Tokyo Trials. Cf. Hora, Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 89; Martha L. Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the Nanking Massacre, 1937-1938 (Connecticut: Yale Divinity School Library, 1997), p. 23. 41. Gray telegram dated February 3, 1938, No. 793.94/12303 in Records of the Department of State Relating to Political Relations between China and Japan, Roll 49. 42. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 312. 43. Gray telegram in ibid. 44. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee, p. 29. 45. Cobuild English Dictionary (London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1995), p. 94. 46. Ibid., p. 1565. 47. Ibid., p. 1023. 48. Ibid. 49. Fujioka Nobukatsu, Kingendaishi kyoiku no kaikaku [Reforming Modern and Contemporary History Education] (Tokyo: Meiji Tosho, 1996), p. 233. 50. Gray telegram in op. cit. 51. Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 204. 52. Hsu, op. cit., p. 5. 53. Peter Nielsen, "The Nanking Atrocities" in China Today (January 1938). 54. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 548. 55. B.K., op. cit. 56. "War in China" in Time (14 February 1938), p. 17. 57. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 543. 58. Nankin jiken shiryoshu 2: Chugoku kankei shiryo hen [Nanking Incident Source Material: Chinese References], trans. Nankin Jiken Chosa Kenkyukai hen [Nanking Incident Research Group] (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 1992), vol. 2, p. 31. 59. Anonymous, "Japan's 'Dance Macabre' in Nanking" in China Forum (19 March 1938), p. 130f. 60. "Cabot Coville no Nankin ryokoki" [Travel journal of Cabot Coville] in Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 112. 61. Ibid., p. 116 62 Ibid. CHAPTER 11: DOCUMENTS OF THE NANKING SAFETY ZONE (1) 1. See Chapter 9, p. 175f. 2. EABN, Part 4 in Kaiko (July 1984), p. 14. 3. "December 15: We fell in at 8:00 a.m. and proceeded along Zhongshan Road to our new quarters. We passed by the Japanese Consulate and part of the international refugee zone, where the residences of foreigners are located, and where the sweep to round up enemy stragglers is being conducted. I caught cold a while ago, and my stomach hurt so much I could hardly walk. Street vendors are already plying their trade. Most of them are selling food, but I also saw a barber cutting hair on a main road. The houses and main roads are packed with people. Some of them are eating standing up. (...) Nine stragglers have taken over a foreigner's house, and have put up a sign reading 'Home of nine refugees.' How ridiculous!" Entry for December 15, 1937 in "Inoie Matakazu nikki," SMBN, vol. 1, p. 369. 4. Maeda Yuji, Senso no nagare no naka ni [Caught in the current of war] (Tokyo: Zenponsha, 1982), p. 125. After graduating from Tokyo University with a degree in French literature, Maeda was hired by the Domei News Agency, which he served as war correspondent. After the war, he became executive director of the Japan National Press Club. Senso no nagare no naka ni is based on the journal he kept during the war years. An excerpt follows. After our troops had occupied Nanking, I heard about a foreign news report that described wholesale looting, violence and arson in the refugee zone. We were totally mystified, because immediately after the occupation, the refugee zone was designated off-limits to military personnel. Furthermore, after the ceremonial entry, vendors opened stalls both inside and outside the refugee zone. And precisely because order had been restored there, the Domei staff members moved back to our branch office, located in the refugee zone. When we arrived, we noticed that the cooks and other servants who had been working for us had also returned. We had just missed Li Xingquan, who had served us faithfully; after being given a large bundle of war currency and an identification card, he disappeared into the crowd. Soon afterwards, rumors about acts of violence committed by Japanese soldiers, emanating from Shanghai, reached our ears. According to the accusations, those acts would have been perpetrated immediately before we commenced our peaceful daily routine at our branch office in the now lively refugee zone. My colleagues and I stared at each other, dumbfounded. Not Arai, not Horikawa, not Nakamura - not one photographer or cinematographer (and they had all made the rounds of the city) had heard about any violent crime in Nanking once order was restored. The sweep for stragglers, and the apprehension of Chinese troops hiding in the refugee zone had ended on [December] 14th. If any unlawful acts had been committed, not just people from my agency, but the 100 other journalists assigned to Nanking from Japan's news media would have heard about them. 5. "Inoie Matakazu nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 371. 6. Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II (New York: BasicBooks, 1997), p. 90. 7. Rabe writes that requests for burial permits submitted between December 13 and the end of January were, without exception, rejected by Japanese military authorities. Not until February 2 was it possible to bury the dead. See Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 170. 8. Saito Jiro, Endo Takaaki, Amano Saburo, Kondo Eishiro and Kurosu Tadanobu (pseudonyms) all participated in the ceremonial entry. See Ono, et al, op. cit., pp. 38, 220, 254, 326, 351. 9. Ibid., p. 79 10. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee, p.5; Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 5. 11. Hsu, op. cit., p. 17. 12. Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 39. 13. Hsu, op. cit., p. 20. 14. Ibid., p. 49. 15. Ibid., p. 53. 16. According to a proclamation issued by Japanese military authorities, "No one is allowed to get a passport for another person." See ibid. 17. Ibid., p. 5. 18. BN, p. 387 19. Hsu, op. cit., p. 20. 20. "Nankin zokuzoku kaiten" [Vendors' stalls in Nanking open for business], Yomiuri Shinbun (10 January 1938). 21. Hsu, op. cit., p. 57. 22. Ibid., p. 84. 23. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee, p. 29. 24. See Chapter 10, Note 41. 25. Hsu, op. cit., p. 74. 26. Ibid. (title page). 27. Hsu, op. cit., p. 121. 28. Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 160. 29. Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 163. 30. Honda Katsuichi, "Nachi Doitsu wo mo kyogaku seshimeta Nankin daibogyaku jiken: chu" [Atrocities in Nanking that astonished even Nazi Germany: Part 2 of 3], Asahi Journal (01 February 1991), p. 70. 31. See Chapter 2, Note 47. 32. Kasahara, Nankin nanminku no hyakunichi [One hundred days in the Nanking refugee zone] (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1995), p. 254f. 33. Honda, Nankin e no michi [The Road to Nanking] (Tokyo: Asahi Bunko, 1994), pp. 198-202. 34. Senso giseisha wo kokoro ni kizamu kai hen [Association for the Commemoration of the War Dead], Nankin daigyakusatsu to genbaku [The Nanking Massacre and the atomic bomb] (Osaka: Toho Shuppan, 1995), p. 15ff. 35. Timperley, op. cit., p. 143. 36. Hora, Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 29. 37. Ibid., p. 27. 38. Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 216. 39. Hsu, op. cit., p. 78. 40. Ibid. 41. Sasaki Toichi, Aru Gunjin no Jiden, p. 199. 42. SMBN, vol. 1, p. 562. CHAPTER 12: DOCUMENTS OF THE NANKING SAFETY ZONE (2) 1. John B. Powell, My Twenty Years in China (New York: Macmillan Company, 19545), p. 156. 2. Ibid. 3. Hsu, op. cit., p. 150. 4. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, p. 105. 5. Hsu, op. cit., p. 61. 6. Ibid., p. 47. 7. Ibid., p. 123f. 8. Ibid., p. 89. 9. Hora, Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu (2) Eibun shiryohen [Source material relating to the Nanking Massacre during the Second Sino-Japanese War: English-language sources] (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 1985), vol. 2, p. 182. 10. Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 205. "Dieser Wang ist in Nanking unter den Namen Jimmy als Altwarenhandler gut bekannt (...) Zu Jimmy's ersten Amtshandlungen gehorte die Einrichtung von Bordellen (...)."[This particular Wang, a dealer in second-hand goods, goes by the name of "Jimmy" in Nanking. His first official duties involved establishing brothels.] 11. Hsu, op. cit., p. 54f. 12. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, pp. 192, 198. 13. Ibid., p. 192. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 17. Masayo Duus, Haisha no okurimono [Gifts from the Vanquished] (Tokyo: Kodansha Bunko, 1995), p. 78ff. 18. Entry for December 17, 1937 in "Orita Mamoru nikki (Hohei dai 23 rentai dai 3 chutaicho dai 1 daitaicho dairi hohei taii" [Journal of Orita Mamoru, captain, acting commander of 1st Battalion, commander of 3rd Company, 23rd Infantry Regiment] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 342. 19. EABN, Part 8 in Kaiko (November 1984), p. 9. 20. Reginald Sweetland, "Japanese Punish 10 Soldiers in Connection with Looting in Nanking" [as translated], Chicago Daily News (09 February 1938), in Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 476. 21. Timperley, op. cit., p. 22. 22. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, pp. 191. 23. "Uemura Toshimichi nikki (Shanhai hakengun sanbo fukucho, hohei taisa)" [Journal of Uemura Toshimichi (Infantry colonel, deputy chief of staff, Shanghai Expeditionary Force)], in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 277. 24. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, pp. 192, 298. 25. "Matsui Iwane taisho jinchu nikki" [War journal of Gen. Matsui Iwane] in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 169. 26. "Iinuma Mamoru nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 188. 27. "Matsui Iwane taisho jinchu nikki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 145. 28. Ibid., p. 149. 29. Ibid. 30. Hsu, op. cit., p. 11. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 33. Hsu, op. cit., p. 10. 34. Timperley, op. cit., p. 33. 35. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, pp. 117. 36. Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 77. 37. Minnie Vautrin, "Sharing the Abundant Life in a Refugee Camp" in The Chinese Recorder (July-August 1938), p. 365. 38. Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 99. 39. Timperley, op. cit., p. 56. 40. Hsu, op. cit., p. 78f. 41. Ibid., p. 55. 42. Timperley, op. cit., p. 39f. 43. Hsu, op. cit., p. 131. 44. Ibid., p. 133. 45. Ibid., p. 154. 46. Timperley, op. cit., p. 53. 47. North China Daily News (22 January 1938) in Nankin jiken shiryoshu 2: Chugoku kankei shiryo hen, vol. 2, p. 31. 48. "Cases 114-143 not among the documents secured." Cf. Hsu, op. cit., Table of Contents. 49. Timperley, op. cit., p. 33. 50. "The Family Letters of Dr. Robert Wilson" in Timothy Brook, ed., Documents on the Rape of Nanking (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), p. 52. 51. Timperley, op. cit., p. 52. 52. Joshua Hammer, "Reipu de umareta kodomotachi" [English title: Born under a Bad Sign], Newsweek (Japanese edition) (25 September 1996), pp. 35-37. 53. Powell, op. cit., p. 551. 54. "Ex-Chinese Officers Among U.S. Refugees: Colonel and His Aides Admit Blaming the Japanese for Crimes in Nanking," New York Times (04 January 1938). 55. Hsu, op. cit., p. 21. 56. Nakazawa Mitsuo (chief of staff, 16th Division), "Moshitsugisho: Nankin ni okeru moshiokuri yoten" [Noteworthy events in Nanking] (c. January 22, 1938) in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 474f. 57. "Chinese Troops Sought Refuge in Nanking's Camps, Japanese Say," The China Press (25 January 1938) in Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 195. 58. "Iinuma Mamoru nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, pp. 173, 175. 59. James McCallum, letter to his family, 09 January 1938, in Smalley, op. cit., p. 43. 60. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, p. 104. 61. Hsu, op. cit., p. 30. 62. Ibid., p. 34. 63. Ibid., p. 40. 64. Ibid. 65. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, p. 117; James McCallum, letter to his family, 29 December 1937, in Smalley, op. cit., p. 34. 66. Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 190. 67. "Uemura Toshimichi nikki" in SMBN, vol. 2, p. 278. 68. "Arison jiken kaiketsu su" [The Allison incident is resolved] in Kokusai chishiki oyobi hyoron [International knowledge and commentary] (March 1938), p. 152. CHAPTER 13: FOOD SHORTAGE AND UNBURIED CORPSES POSE THREATS 1. Hsu, op. cit., p. 16. 2. "Kisaki Hisashi nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 317. 3. BN, p. 141. Note further than the order issued on December 10, at about noon, by Tang Shengzhi (Defense Operation Order No. 1) dictated that all gunpowder and ammunition be detonated, all communication networks inside the city be destroyed, and all bridges over main thoroughfares be demolished. Cf. "Tang Shengzhi no meirei genko" [Original order issued by Tang Shengzhi] in SMBN, p. 618. 4. "Nankin ni jichi iinkai seiritsu su" [Self-Government Committee established in Nanking], Kokusai chishiki oyobi hyoron (February 1938), p. 143. 5. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee, p. 5. 6. "Matsui Iwane taisho jinchu nikki" in op. cit., vol. 2, p. 169. 7. Maruyama Susumu, letter to author, February 5, 1997. For details about Maruyama's assignment to the Nanking Special Agency, see Higashinakano Shudo, ed., "Nankin tokumu kikan (Mantetsu shain) Maruyama Susumu shi no kaiso" [Recollections of former Manchurian Railway employee Maruyama Susumu] in Higashinakano Shudo, ed., Nankin gyakusatsu kenkyu no saizensen 2002 [The front line of research on the Nanking Massacre 2002] (Tokyo: Tendensha, 2002), p. 215. See also Imura Tetsuro, "Tokubetsu rensai Mantetsu chosa kankeisha ni kiku: Dai 30 kai Kumagaya Yasushi: Mantetsu Shanhai jimusho no senbu katsudo, joho katsudo" [Special series featuring interviews with former Manchurian Railway employees: Interview No. 30 with Kumagai Yasushi, formerly in charge of pacification and intelligence-gathering efforts at the Shanghai office], Ajia Keizai [Asian Economies] 29:12 (1988), p. 90. 8. Maruyama Susumu, letter to author, February 5, 1997. 9. Ibid. 10. "Kanamaru Yoshio gunso shuki (Dai 16 shidan keiribu)" [Journal of Sgt. Kanamaru Yoshio, Intendance Dept., 16th Division] in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 257. 11. Hsu, op. cit., p. 83f. 12. Ibid., p. 87 13 Ibid., p. 114. 14. Ibid., p. 87. 15. Ibid., p. 90. 16. Ibid., p. 112. 17. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee, p. 6. 18. Hsu, op. cit., p. 84. 19. Ibid., p. 53. 20. Higashinakano, "Nankin tokumu kikan (Mantetsu shain) Maruyama Susumu shi no kaiso" in op. cit., p. 218. 21. Nankin tokumu kikan hen [Nanking Special Agency, ed.] (revised by Higashinakano Shudo), "Nankin tokumu kikan hokoku (1)" [Nanking Special Agency Report No. 1] in Nankin gyakusatsu kenkyu no saizensen saizensen 2004 [The front line of research on the Nanking Massacre 2004] (Tokyo: Tendensha, 2004). 22. "Nankin tokumu kikan hokoku (2)", in ibid., p. 85 23. Yomiuri Shinbun (10 January 1938). 24. "Matsui Iwane taisho jinchu nikki" in op. cit., vol. 2, p. 145. 25. Lewis S.C. Smythe & Assistants, War Damage in the Nanking Area, December 1937 to March 1938: Urban and Rural Surveys, On Behalf of The Nanking International Relief Committee, footnote under Table 1. 26. Ichiki, op. cit., p. 22. 27. Chang, op. cit., p. 139. 28. Timperley, op. cit., p. 59. 29. Fujiwara, op. cit., p. 44f. 30. Woodhead, The China Year Book 1939, p. 562. 31. Hsu, op. cit., p. 68. 32. Timperley, op. cit., p. 143. 33. Ara, Kikigaki: Nankin jiken, p. 18. 34. Hsu, op. cit., p. 14. 35. EABN, Part 8 in Kaiko (November 1984), p. 5. 36. Hsu, op. cit., p. 90. 37. Ibid., p. 157. 38. Ibid., p. 163. 39. Ibid., p. 166. 40. Ibid., p. 99 41. Rikugun Gahosha, Shina jihen: Senseki no shiori [The Second Sino-Japanese War: A guide to former battle sites] (Tokyo: Rikugun Juppeibu, 1938), p. 183. 42. Nankin jiken shiryoshu 1: Amerika kankei shiryo hen, vol. 1, p. 311. 43. Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 147. 44. Nakazawa, Moshitsugisho in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 475. 45. The following sentence appears in records kept by the Nanking Special Agency describing the situation in March 1938: "They may call them burials, but most of the time, they appear only to be dumping straw-wrapped corpses in the designated areas." Cf. Nankin tokumu kikan (revised by Higashinakano Shudo), "Nankin tokumu kikan hokoku (3)" in Nankin gyakusatsu kenkyu no saizensen 2004, p.121. 46. Nakazawa, Moshitsugisho in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 475. 47. Ibid., p. 474. 48. Hsu, op. cit., p. 99. 49. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, p. 386. 50. "Kisaki Hisashi nikki" in SMBN, vol. 1, p. 318. 51. Rabe, [Report to Hitler] in Nankin no shinjitsu, p. 315. 52. Higashinakano, ed. "Nankin tokumu kikan (Mantetsu shain) Maruyama Susumu shi no kaiso" in op. cit., p. 222. 53. Wickert, Good Man of Nanking, p. 170. 54. Rabe, [Report to Hitler] in Nankin no shinjitsu, p. 317. 55. Hsu, op. cit., p. 66. 56. Georg Rosen, "Endgultiger Rucktritt des Vorsitzendes des Nankinger 'Selbstverwaltungskomites' Tao Hsi-san" in Deutsche Gesandschaft /Botschaft in China, p. 80. 57 Ibid. 58. Higashinakano, ed. "Maruyama Susumu shi no kaiso" in op. cit., p. 222. 59. "Though they have been burying 200 bodies a day, they find there are still 30,000 left to bury, mostly in Hsiakwan." See Miner Searle Bates, "Relief Situation in Nanking" in Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No. 10, Box 102, Folder 866, Yale Divinity School Library, New Haven, Connecticut. 60. Higashinakano, ed. "Maruyama Susumu shi no kaiso" in op. cit., p. 223. 61. Ibid., p. 224. 62. Ibid., p. 225. 63. Higashinakano, ed., Nankin gyakusatsu kenkyu no saizensen 2004, p. 121. 64. Higashinakano, ed., "Maruyama Susumu shi no kaiso" in op. cit., p. 225. 65. Rabe, [Report to Hitler] in Nankin no shinjitsu, p. 317. 66. Higashinakano, ed., "Maruyama Susumu shi no kaiso" in op. cit., p. 228. 67. Georg Rosen, "Die Lage in Nanking" in Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 107f. 68. Hsu, op. cit., p. 67. 69. Bates, op. cit. 70. Woodhead, The China Year Book 1939, p. 562. 71. Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 2, p. 263f. 72. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, p. 145. 73. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee, p. 19. 74. Higashinakano, ed., Nankin gyakusatsu kenkyu no saizensen 2004, p.87. CHAPTER 14: FURTHER EXAMINATION OF THE "NANKING MASSACRE" 1. Robert Wilson, letter to his family, 18 December 1937 in Zhang Kaiyuan, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2001), p. 394. 2. Timperley, op. cit., p. 47f. 3. Ibid., p. 49. 4. Timperley, op. cit., p. 50. 5. Ibid., p. 50f. 6. Miner Bates' letter to Harold Timperley, 12 April 1938 in Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group 10, Box 4, Folder 52. 7. Smythe et al., op. cit., p. 8. 8. Woodhead, The China Year Book 1938, p. 352. 9. Woodhead, The China Year Book 1939, p. 640. 10. Woodhead, The China Year Book 1938, p. xv; The China Year Book 1939, p. xv. 11. Ibid., p. xxiv. 12. China at War, vol. 1, No. 1 (April 1938), see comment above Table of Contents. 13. Ibid., p. 70. 14. Hsu Shuhsi, ed., The War Conduct of the Japanese (Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh, 1938), p. 146. 15. Mo Takuto [Mao Zedong], "Jikyusen ni tsuite" [On protracted war], in Mo Takuto senshu [Selected Works of Mao Zedong] (Beijing: Gaiko Shuppansha, 1968), p. 237. 16. Woodhead, The China Year Book 1939, p. 435f. 17. "Editorial: A Year of Undeclared War" in Kwei Chungshu, ed., The China Critic (07 July 1938), p. 6. 18. China Forum, 09 July 1938, pp. 51, 58. 19. Woodhead, The China Year Book 1939, p. 417. 20. Arthur de Carle Sowerby, "One Year of Undeclared War in China," in The China Journal, vol. XXIX (July 1938), p. 7. 21. C.H., "One Year of Sino-Japanese Conflict" in China Quarterly, vol. 3, no. 3, (08 January 1938), p. 271. 22. "Outstanding Events in the Sino-Japanese War," p. 246. 23. "Review of the First Year of the War (By a Chinese Contributor)" in The China Weekly Review, vol. 85, no. 6, (09 July 1938), p. 188. 24. Robert Norton, "One Year of War" in China Today, vol. 4, no. 10, (July 1938), p. 7. 25. The Character and the Activities of the Anti-Japanese College for Military and Political Training, trans., Mikami Taicho, Ishikawa Tadao, Shibata Minoru (Osaka: Kansai University Institute of Oriental and Occidental Studies, 1965), pp. 60, 151. 26. Ibid., p. 191. 27. Ibid., p. 48. 28. Ibid., p. 159. 29. See Chugoku kyosanto shi shiryoshu [Collected Materials on the History of the Chinese Communist Party] (Tokyo: Keiso Shobo, 1974), p. 388. 30. Miner Searle Bates, letter to his friends, 29 November 1938 in Bates Papers, Record Group No. 10, Box 4, Folder 52, Yale Divinity School Library, New Haven, Connecticut. 31. Tsu, op. cit., p. 79. 32. Hsu, The War Conduct of the Japanese, p. 146; Hsu, ed., A Digest of Japanese War Conduct (Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh, 1939), p. 11; "The War Conduct of the Japanese" in Hsu, ed., Chinese Year Book 1938-39, p. 185; Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p. 106. 33. Edgar Snow, The Battle for Asia (New York: World Publishing Co., 1941-1942), p. 57. 34. Lily Abegg, Chinas Erneuerung: Der Raum als Waffe (Frankfurt: Societats-Verlag, 1940), p. 183. 35. Woodhead, "Preface," The China Year Book 1939. CHAPTER 15: AN OVERVIEW OF THE "NANKING MASSACRE" 1. Agnes Smedley, Battle Hymn of China (New York: Knopf, 1943), p. 213. 2. See John Pritchard and Sonia Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (New York: Garland Publishing, 1981), vol. 2, p. 2630. 3. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen vol. 1, p. 13. 4. Nitta, op. cit., vol. 1, p. 50. 5. Espy, "Nankin ni okeru jokyo," in op. cit., p. 150. 6. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, vol. 1, p. 142f. 7. Ibid., p. 143. 8. Ibid., p. 300. 9. Ibid., p. 339. 10. Nitta, op. cit., vol. 10, p. 768. 11. Ibid., p. 800. 12. Ara, "Jorui: Heishitachi no Nanking jiken," p. 210ff. 13. "Tokyo Saiban no Uebbu Saibancho, 'Misemonoteki Kokaisaiban ni Hantai'" ["Presiding Justice Webb Opposed to 'Showcase Trial'" ] in Asahi Shinbun (08 February 1995), p. 9. 14. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, vol. 1, p. 111. 15. Maruyama, "Waga showashi" [My Showa era] (24)], in Mantetsu wakabakai kaiho [Manchurian Railway Employees Journal], no. 138, October 1998, p. 80. 16. Zhen Shunchen, Chugoku rekishi no tabi [Travels through Chinese history] (Osaka: Toho Shoten, 1991), p.180. 17. Chan Yik Cham, New Chinese History: New Edition (Hong Kong: Ling Kee Publishing Co., 1975), p. 130. 18. Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl Wudunn, China Wakes: The Struggle for the Soul of a Rising Power (New York: Vintage Books, 1994), pp. 92-124. 19. Zhongxiaoxue tongyong jiaocai bianxiezu bian [Middle and Elementary School Textbook Editorial Committee], ed., Zhongguo lishi [History of China] (Beijing: Renmin Shubanshe [People's Education Press], 1979), p. 51 CHAPTER 16: THE "NANING MASSACRE" AS WAR PROPAGANDA 1. Atsuta Ko et al., Chugaku shakai (Rekishiteki bunya) [Middle school social studies (history)] (Osaka: Osaka Shoseki, 1999), pp. 252-253. 2. Department of History, People's Education Publishing, Chinese History, Vol. 4, 1997, p. 54. 3. Suzuki Akira, Shin Nankin daigyakusatsu no maboroshi [The illusion of the "Nanking Massacre": New edition] (Tokyo: Asuka Shinsha, 1999), p. 285. 4. Ibid., p. 292. 5. Esther Tappert Mortensen papers, Record Group No. 21, Box 7, Folder 120, Yale Divinity School Library, New Haven, Connecticut. 6. See Editors' Note in The China Monthly, January 1940, Vol. 1, No. 2. 7. Timperley, op. cit, p. 24. 8. Ho Yingching, Chunichi kankei to sekai no zenshin [Sino-Japanese relations and the advancement of the world], trans. Association of Sino-Japanese Culture and Economy (Taipei: Shochu Publishing, 1974), p. 87. 9. Guo Moruo, Konichisen kaisoroku [Reflections on the war against Japan], trans. Okazaki Toshio, (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1959), pp. 20, 25, 48, 50, 58, 191, 202. Guo Moruo was a famous revolutionary and historian. 10. Ibid. 11. Guo Moruo, op. cit., p. 62. 12. "Bo tekitai senden" [5. Propaganda against the enemy] in "Daisanbu kokusai senden" [International Propaganda Section 3] in Chuo sendenbu hantoshi chushin kosaku keikaku, [Central Information Department's six-month central plan (March- August 1939), property of the Chinese Nationalist Party's Central Committee for the Compilation of Documents Relating to Party History], mimeographed, [1939?]. 13. Guo Moruo, op. cit., p. 113. 14. Ibid., p. 154. 15. Chinese Nationalist Party, ed., Chuo sendenbu kokusai sendensho kosaku gaiyo 1938 nen kara 1941 nen 4 gatsu [Overview of the activities of the Central Information Division's International Information Division (1938-April 1941). Since this publicaton contains no serial page numbers, please refer to "Activities of the Division for Propaganda Against the Enemy." 16. Ibid. Gaijin mokuto no Nichigun boko is followed by Kamino shison wa Chugoku ni ari [God's children are in China]. The correct title of Gaijin mokuto no Nichigun boko [Japanese atrocities witnessed by foreigners] is Gaijin mokuto chu no Nichigun boko [Japanese atrocities while witnessed by foreigners], which is the Chinese version of Timperley's What War Means. 17. "Overview of the Activities of the External Affairs Section." 18. Wang Ling Xiao, Chugoku Kokuminto shimbun seisaku no kenkyu [Study of the Chinese Nationalist Party's Newspaper Policy], Party History Committee of the Chinese Nationalist Party's Central Committee, 1996, p. 209. 19. Zeng Xubai, Autobiography of Zeng Xubai (Shokukei Publishing Co., 1988), Vol. 1, pp. 200-201. 20. Harold Timperley's letter to Miner Bates, March 14, 1938, in Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No. 10, Box 4, Folder 65. 21. Timperley, ed., Japanese Terror in China, p. 9f. 22. Ibid., p. 71 23. Miner Bates' letter to Harold Timperley, March 3, 1938, in Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No. 10, Box 4, Folder 65. 24. Harold Timperley's letter to Miner Bates, March 28, 1938, in Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No. 10, Box 4, Folder 65. 25. Timperley, op. cit., p. 9. 26. Ibid., p. 20 27. Ibid., p. 18. 28. Professional Record, M.S. Bates, in Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No. 10, Box 126, Folder 1132. 29. Timperley, op. cit., p. 19; copy of a report by Dr. M. S. Bates of the University of Nanking-Confidential, Anlage zum Peiping-Bericht, Nr. 2722/4579/37 vom 30. Dezember 1937, in 2205 Chinesisch-Japanischer Konflikt, Bd.3,11/ 1937-3/1938, Botschaft in China (Bestand R9208), Bundesarchiv, Berlin. 30. Ibid., p. 20f. 31. Ibid., p. 21. 32. Ibid., p. 21. 33. Ibid., p. 22. 34. Ibid., p. 22. 35. See the cover of Japanese Terror in China (New York: Modern Age Books, 1938). 36. Bates' testimony at the Tokyo Trials. See R. John Pritchard and Sonia M. Zaide, ed., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial, Vol. 2 (New York: Garland Publishing, 1981), p. 2626f. 37. Timperley, ed., op. cit., p. 161. 38. Tomisawa Shigenobu, Nankin jiken no kakushin [At the core of the Nanking Incident] (Tokyo: Tendensha, 2003), pp. 83-84. 39. Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p.78; Higashinakano, ed., Nankin gyakusatsu kenkyu no saizensen 2002, p. 128. John Magee testified, "I saw a Chinese being killed," when he was asked during the Tokyo Trials actually how many murder cases he witnessed. But it is extremely likely that he bore false testimony. Magee wrote in his diary that he did not see "the actual killing." See Letter of John Magee to his wife, December 19, 1937, in Martha L. Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the Nanking Massacre, 1937-1938, (New Haven: Yale Divinity School Library, 1997), p. 23. 40. Timperley, op. cit., p. 31. 41. Ibid., p. 33. 42. Wickert, The Good Man of Nanking, p. 77. 43. Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p. 18. 44. Bates' letter to his wife, February 1, 1938, in Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No. 10, Box 1, Folder 8. After the war ended, Tokuyasu Fukuda, who had been "in charge of handling complaints" at the Japanese Embassy in Nanking (he later became Minister of Postal Affairs), testified as follows: "My duty was to go to the office at No. 5 Ninghai Road No. 5 from time to time to negotiate with the International Committee there. One day, I saw two or three Americans busily typing. When I took a quick glance at them, I noticed that they were typing reports, such as "Japanese soldiers assaulted a woman at such and such a place at such and such a time today." I scolded them: "Just a minute! I don't know who told you that, but never type such a thing without checking. Why don't you investigate the matter before you report on it?" Later, it occurred to me that they must have been preparing material for Timperley's book [What War Means]. After that, I cautioned them any number of times: "Don't you think there's something strange about recording what a Chinese tells you (which might have been invented) without conducting an investigation?" [...] My duty was to receive Chinese complaints. They protested against this and that, mixing truth and falsehoods. My patience was wearing thin. [...] For instance, one day the American vice-consul came to the office and said, "Japanese soldiers are stealing lumber from an American warehouse in Xiaguan and loading it into a truck." "We can't have that. Come with me!" I sent for a staff officer, and the three of us drove over there. It was around 9 o'clock on a cold morning; it was snowing heavily. When we arrived, we found the place deserted. The warehouse was locked, and there was no sign of its having been opened. I berated the vice-consul: "There's nothing amiss here! You've wasted my time and the staff officer's time! Next time, do some checking before coming to me! The Army is concerned about every incident, no matter how minor, as I'm sure you can see since we rushed over here." "Please make sure this doesn't happen again." The vice-consul said he'd be more careful in the future. [...] There were many similar incidents. [...] It is true that the Japanese Army was to blame in some cases, but there was absolutely nothing remotely resembling a massacre, especially one claiming 200,000, 300,000 or even 1,000 victims. [...] There was no place to hide there. There would have been countless witnesses, and the consequences would have been horrible. This accusation is totally without basis. It's a propagandist plot. Tanaka Masaaki, Nankin gyakusatsu no kyoko [The fallacy of the "Nanking Massacre"] (Tokyo: Nihon Kyobunsha, 1984), pp. 35-37. Similar testimony can be found in Fukuda Tokuyasu,"Timpare hodo no shinso" [The truth about Timperley's report], Ichiokunin no showashi: Nicchu senso I [The history of one hundred million people in the Showa era: Sino-Japanese War I] (Tokyo: Mainichi Shimbunsha, 1979), p. 261. 45. Bates witnessed men and women responding to the Japanese Army's classified advertisements. Their responses were completely voluntary ... they welcomed the opportunity. The women must have gone to apply for work at a house of prostitution that Wang Changtien of the Red Swastika Society was in the process of establishing. Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p. 89; George Rosen, Nankings Ubergang, den 20 Januar 1938, in Deutsch Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China. Japanisch-Chinesischer Konflikt (Microfilm), Deutsches Bundesarchiv, S.205. 46. Higashinakano, ed., "Nankin tokumu kikan hokoku (2)," op. cit., p. 96. 47. Timperley, op. cit., p. 26. 48. See Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, pp. 571, 577. 49. Wickert, The Good Man of Nanking, p. 201f. 50. Timperley, op. cit., p. 19. 51. Ibid., p. 30. 52. See Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 582 (translated from Japanese version). 53. Higashinakano, ed., "Nankin tokumu kikan hokoku (2)", op. cit., p. 99. 54. Smythe Letter, December 15, 1937, in Zhang Kaiyuan, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre: American Missionaries Bear Witness to Japanese Atrocities in Nanjing (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2001), p. 258. 55. Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p. 5. No Chinese soldier was disarmed in the Safety Zone by the Japanese Army. The International Committee may have disarmed some of them. But they did not return the disarmed soldiers and weapons to the Japanese army. Instead, they hid them. In March 1938, the Japanese army wrote, "The weapons which were already found reached the amount of fifty trucks." Higashinakano, ed., "Nankin tokumu kikan hokoku (3)", op. cit., p. 119. 56. Gray telegram, op. cit. 57. DoD News: Secretary Rumsfeld Media Availability en route to Camp-X-Ray, United States Department of Defense News Transcript, January 27, 2001. 58. Ibid. 59. DoD News: DoD News Briefing-Secretary Rumsfeld and Gen. Myers, United States Department of Defense News Transcript, January 30, 2001. 60. DoD News: Dod News Briefing-Secretary Rumsfeld and Gen. Myers, United States Department of Defense News Transcript, February 8, 2001. 61. Ibid. 62. DoD News: DoD News Briefing-Secretary Rumsfeld and Gen. Myers, United States Department of Defense News Transcript, January 11, 2001. I have to say that Perry Link's "Forward" which criticized my paper in Nanking 1937 completely ignored this point, and was a criticism beside the point. Cf. Perry Link, "Forward," Fei Fei Li, Robert Sabella and David Liu, ed., Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing, (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2002), p. xvii. 63. Ibid. 64. Timperley, op. cit., p. 51. 65. Ibid. Harold Timperley's letter to Miner Bates, March 14, 1938. 66. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee, p. 19. 67. See The Chinese Nationalist Party, " Henshuka kosaku gaiyo" [Overview of Editing Section activities], Chuo Sendenbu Kokusai Sendensho Kosaku Gaiyo [Overview of the activities of the Central Information Division's International Information Division] 68. Guo Moruo, op. cit., p. 69. 69. See "4. Kokusai Senden" [4. International Propaganda], Chinese Nationalist Party, Overview of Propagandist Activities, mimeographed, n.d.. 70. China Year Book 1939, pp. 416-420. More attention should be paid to the fact that the Special Issue Commemorating the First Anniversary of Sino-Japanese War, an English-language magazine published by Europeans, Americans and Chinese in Shanghai did not mention the "Nanking Massacre." See Chapter 14. 71. Note written by Miner S. Bates, April 12, 1938, in Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No. 10, Box 4, Folder 52, Yale Divinity School Library. 72. Steele, "Nanking Massacre Story: Japanese Troops Kill Thousands," in Chicago Daily News, December 15, 1937. 73. Durdin, "Butchery Marked Capture of Nanking", in New York Times, December 18, 1937. 74. Timperley, op. cit., p. 14f. 75. Ibid., p. 143. Minnie Vautrin's Diary (1937-1940), Miscellaneous Personal Papers Collection, Record Group No. 8, Box 206, Yale Divinity School Library, p. 123. Wickert (Hrsg.), John Rabe, S.186; Wickert, ed., The Good Man of Nanking, p. 131. 76. See Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 583. 77. What should be noted is that the battle was not over even when the city gates fell. On December 13, the day the city fell, at Shanghezhen near the bank of the Yangtze River, to the west of the South Gate (Zhonghua Gate), the 11th Company, attached to the 45th Infantry Regiment of the 6th Division, entered into a fierce battle after having been surrounded by a tremendous number of Chinese soldiers. In his diary, veteran soldier Fukumoto Tsuzuku wrote that the 11th Company was "surrounded by approximately 40,000 enemy troops." A counterattack by a battery of mountain artillery could repulse the Chinese soldiers. But Company Commander Ozono Shozo and his 14 subordinates were killed. Thirty-five Japanese soldiers were injured. It was a very fierce battle. At that time, according to the testimony of Lieutenant Takahashi Yoshihiko (who was under the command of the 11th Company as the platoon leader of the battery of mountain artillery), the Chinese whose escape was blocked "stripped naked and jumped into the river." They became the victims of the Japanese army's continued attack, and many of them died in the Yangtze River. Another entry in Fukumoto Tsuzuku Nikki [Fukumoto Tsuzuku's diary] mentions that on December 20, the divisional commander supervised a count of the corpses. "In the afternoon a small platoon went out to Shanghezhen, where we counted 2,377 enemy corpses. I heard many of them drowned in the river." At 8 pm, on December 13, outside Taiping Gate in the east, Chinese soldiers who had been taken prisoner noticed that were not many Japanese Army soldiers guarding them. They threw hand grenades and escaped, killing or injuring six Japanese soldiers. At 4:30 pm on December 14, three Japanese soldiers were killed instantly by Chinese troops' trench mortars on a street near a munitions factory (in the vicinity of the South Gate (Zhonghua Gate)) outside the city. Regiment Commander Ide Tatsuo died the next morning. The city gates had fallen, but fierce battles still raged in some areas outside the city on December 13 and 14. For this reason, some Japanese units had the largest number of dead and injured since the Shanghai conflict. Even inside the city, Chinese soldiers attacked the Japanese army. There was no street fighting inside the city, but there was sporadic shooting. SMBN, p. 385. Kobayashi Masao, ed., Sakigake: Kyodo jinbutsu senki [Pioneer: Diary of a Japanese soldier] (Ise Shimbun Sha, 1984), p. 536. Kajimura Itaru, Tairiku o tatakau: Kansoku shotaicho no nikki [Fighting in China: Diary of an observation platoon commander], self-published, 1979, p. 50. 78. Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p. 1 79. Ibid., p. 10f; Timperley, op. cit., p. 144. 80. See Nankin jiken shiryoshu , vol. 1, pp. 110-121. 81. Conversation of Consul Tanaka with M.S.B., March 31, 1938, in Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No.10, Box 102, Folder 867, Yale Divinity School Library, New Haven, Connecticut. 82. Based on data made available to biographical dictionaries and dated December 1, 1972 (profile of Bates' last years) in Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No. 10, Box 126, Folder 1132. 83. Theodore H. White, In Search of History: A Personal Adventure (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1978), p.76. 84. The Nationalist Party's Central Information Division held a news conference for foreign correspondents and military officers who were living in China almost every two days. This amounts to a total of 600 news conferences during the 42 months between December 1937 and April 1941; protests were not registered against the "Nanking Massacre" at any of them. Wang Ruowang, a Chinese writer born in 1918 and stripped of his party membership in 1987 recalled, "During the war I never heard anything about a Nanking Massacre." For his observations, see Suzuki, Shin Nankin dai gyakusatsu no maboroshi, pp. 34, 36. 85. The words of William Logan, Jr., a lawyer at the Tokyo Trials. As Logan stated, by admitting transcribed oaths of witnesses, the tribunal disregarded the common sense "which is well recognized in all English speaking countries, to see them, hear their testimony, and have the opportunity of cross-examination of the witness." The prosecution did not [establish perjury], and accepted even testimony by hearsay. Logan's testimony was as follows: "That being so, if the Tribunal pleases, The defense are unanimous in opposition to a trial of this case on affidavits. This raises the fundamental proposition of law, which is well recognized in all English speaking countries, that the accused in a criminal case is entitled to be confronted by the witnesses, to see them, bear their testimony, and have the opportunity of cross-examination of the witness. If the witness is not produced, the opportunity of cross-examination is lost; and this trial would be presented by testimony from an unseen, unknown, and unheard of witness." See Hora, Nichu senso Nankin daigyakusatu jiken shiryoshu (1), p. 111. See also Pritchard and Zaide, ed., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial, vol. 2, p. 4451f. As many have indicated, those who sat as judges at the Tokyo War Crimes Trials, represented only the victorious nations. Those from neutral nations did not sit there. All persons on trial were from Japan. This was not a trial, but retaliation. Moreover, they ignored the grand rule, "The law should not influence the past," resorting to the use of ex post facto law. 86. General Matsui was heard to say that the "Nanking Massacre" was a fiction created by the foreign press. See Miner Bates' letter, December 10, 1946, in Miner Searle Bates Papers, RG10, B4, F53. 87. Based on the late Professor Muramatsu Takeshi's speech entitled "Recollections of the Japanese Emperor's Visit to China" at Sankei Kaikan in Tokyo on May 16, 1992. The population of 200,000 (according to Prof. Muramatsu) is confirmed by the following: Daily press conferences at the Chinese-British Cultural Association spanned a period beginning 20 days before the fall of Nanking and ending on the day after the city fell. Participants at the conferences, which focused on events in Nanking, included the mayor, military personnel, news correspondents, missionaries and businessmen. There is no record of a government representative (or anyone else, for that matter) stating that the population of Nanking was 500,000 during any of those conferences. On November 28, Wang Gupan, head of the Police Department, made the following announcement: "At present, there are 200,000 people living here in Nanking." Thereafter, the conventional wisdom in the foreign community was that Nanking's population was 200,000. Nanking was surrounded by massive walls with a circumference of 34 kilometers. Not until February 25, 1938 were ordinary citizens allowed to travel into or out of the city. Despite the fact that there was no appreciable civilian traffic into or out of Nanking, the city's population increased. Five days after the fall of Nanking, the International Committee reported that the population was "200,000." On December 21, the [Foreign Community of Nanking] mentioned that there were currently "200,000 civilians in Nanking." Therefore, we must conclude that the population of Nanking did not change before or after the city fell. If there had indeed been a massacre, the population would have decreased. On January 14, 1938, one month after the fall of Nanking, the International Committee estimated the population to be "250,000 to 300,000 civilians inside the city" - in other words, inside the Safety Zone. The Committee's estimate (based on figures from a census taken by the Japanese military) was later corrected to "250,000 civilians." The population increased because the Japanese Army did not execute all the soldiers hidden in the Safety Zone, but recognized them as civilians. The assertion that the population at the time of the fall of Nanking was 500,000 shows blatant disregard for or ignorance of the information stated in contemporary documents. See Minnie Vautrin's letter: A Review of the First Month, December 13, 1937 to January 13, 1938, in Archives of the United Board for Christian Higher Education in Asia, Record Group No.11, Box 145, Yale Divinity School Library, New Haven, Connecticut; Wickert, ed., John Rabe, p. 28; Wickert, The Good Man of Nanking, p. 39; Higashinakano, ed., Nankin tokumu kikan hokoku (2), p. 99; Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p. 20; Letter of the Foreign Community of Nanking to the Imperial Japanese Embassy, December 21, 1937, in Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No. 10, Box 102, Folder 864, Yale Divinity School Library, New Haven, Connecticut; Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p. 84; Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking (New York: Basic Books, 1997), p. 81.

    CHAPTER 17: NEW EVIDENCE LEADS TO THE CONCLUSION THAT THERE WAS NO MASSACRE IN NANKING

    1. Archibald Steele, Nannking Massacre Story: Japanese Troops Kill Thousands, in: The Chicago Daily News, December 15, 1937. 2. Tillman Durdin, Butchery Marked Capture of Nanking, in: New York Times, December 18, 1937. 3. Maeda Yuji, op. cit., p.125. 4. Ara, Kikigaki: Nankin jiken p.209, 210. 5. John Pritchard and Sonia Zaide, ed., op. cit., vol. 2, p.2,626. 6. Tomisawa Shigenobu, op. cit., p.iii, vi, viii. 7. Higashinakanoirevizedj, "Nankin tokumu kikan hokoku (2)" in Nankin gyakusatsu kenkyu no saizensen saizens2004, p.90. 8. See p.55 of this book. 9. See p.137 of this book. 10. See Kasahara, "Tillman Durdin shi kara no kikigaki" in Nankin jiken shiryoshu 1: Amerika kankei shiryo hen, vol. 1, p. 577. 11. Ibid., p.564. 12. Isii Itaro, Ishii Itaro Diary (continued), Monthly Chuo Koron (June, 1991), p.271. 13. Tomisawa, op. cit. p.v, vii, ix. 14. See p.155. of this book. 15. See p.220. of this book. 16. See p.222 of this book.
    2. Timperley, ed., Japanese Terror in China, p.19, 21, 51.
    3. The Asahi Shimbun, Dec. 9, 1945, p.4. 19. Letter of John Magee to his wife, dated Dec. 19, 1937, in: Martha L. Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the Nanking Massacre, 1937-1938 (Connecticut: Yale Divinity School Library, 1997), p. 23. 20. Pritchard and Zaide, ed., op. cit., p.2, 630. 21. Ibid., p.2,630f. 22. Statement of M.B.Bates, dated February 6, 1947, in : Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No.10, Box 126, 4, Folder1132, Yale Divinity School Library, New Haven, Connecticut. 23. A proposed three days armistice reads as follows: "For the sake of 200,000 helpless civilians, the International Committee for a Safety Zone in Nanking respectfully proposes to the Chinese and Japanese authorities a truce of exactly three daysc." See Plumer Mills letter to his family, dated on January 31, 1938 in: Plumer Mills Papers, Record Group No.8, Box 141, Folder ?, Yale Divinity School Library, New Haven, Connecticut; China Bulettin No.7, issued on March 28, 1938 reads as follows: "NANKING: As the siege of Nanking developed rapidly, 80 % of its one million people left for parts unknown. As many as possible of the remainng 200,000 sought the Safety Zone conducted by a group of foreigners, with George Fitch, International Committee secretary, as director in charge." See Plumer Mills Papers, Record Group No.8, Box 281, Folder 1. When arguing the population in Nanking, we must also take into consideration the following fact that they thought on Dec. 28, 1937 "we do not know when people will be allowed to move in and out of the city freely." It was on February 25, 1938 that the Japanese allowed to move freely. On these points, see Ernest Forster's letter to his wife, in: Plumer Mills Papers, Record Group No.8, Box 263, Folder 5; 24. Letter of the Foreign Community of Nanking to the Imperial Japanese Embassy, December 25. 1937, in: Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No.10, Box 102, Folder 864. 25. Hsu, ed., Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p.84. 26. Hora, ed., Nicchu Senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryoshu (1), vol. 1, p.396. 27. Tanaka Masaaki, "Nankin gyakusatu" no kyoko, p.37; The similar testimny is in Fukuda Tokuyasu, "Timpare hodo no shinso", Ichiokunin no Showashi I : Nicchu senso, p.261. 28. Outline of the Operations of the International Information Department, Ministry of Information 1941, p.1 of the Counterintelligence Division. 29. Ibid., p.2. 30. Institute for Modern History Research of China Social Science Academy, ed., Dictionary of Notable Visitors to China in the Modern Era (Beijing: China Social Science Publishing, 1981), p.477. 31. This is based on a newspaper clip carrying an article with a photo of Bates which is supposed to be on just before the fall of Nanking. However, the name of the newspaper is not identified. Esther Tappert Mortensen papers, Record Group No.21, Box 7, Folder 120, Yale Divinity School Library, New Haven, Connecticut. 32. See the editor's note, in: The China Monthly, January 1940, Vol1, No.2. 33. Note of Miner S. Bates, April 12, 1938, in: Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No.10, Box 4, Folder 52, Yale Divinity School Library. 34. Some data available for directories\ Miner Searle Bates, dated December 1, 1972, im: Miner Searle Bates Papers, Record Group No.10, Box 126, Folder 1132. 35. Tillman Durdin, Japanese Atrocites Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled, New York Times, January 9, 1938. 36. Outline of the Operations of the International Information Department, p.2 of the Counterintelligence Division. 37. Outline of the Operations of the International Information Department, p.1 of the Foreign Affairs Division. 38. Hihgashinakano, The Overall Picture of the "Nanking Massacre", in: Fei Fei Li, Robert Sabella and David Liu, eds, Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing (New York: M.E.Sharpe 2002), p.111.
    SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER: REREADING RABE'S DIARY

    1. Wickert, John Rabe, p. 170f.

    2. Ibid., p. 99.

    3. Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p. 1.

    4. Robert Wilson's letter to his family, 14 December 1937 in Nankin jiken shiryoshu, vol. 1, p. 277.

    5. Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p. 1.

    6. Wickert, John Rabe, p. 107.

    7. Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p. 14f.

    8. Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, vol. 1, p. 150f.

    9. Rabe's Report to Hitler in Nankin no Shinjitsu, p. 96.

    10. Fukuda Kazuya, "John Rabe no nikki 'Nankin daigyakusatsu' wo do yomuka?" [What are we to make of the "Nanking Massacre" described in John Rabe's diaries?], in Shokun! (December 1997), p. 37.

    11. John Rabe's Report to Hitler in Nankin no Shinjitsu, p. 314.

    12. Ibid., p. 315.

    13. Ibid., p. 316.

    14. Ibid., p. 303.

    15. Yokoyama Hiroaki, "Commentary: The Tragedy in Nanking and Rabe's Diary" in Wickert, Nankin no shinjitsu, p. 328.

    16. For further information about the comment made by P.R. Shields of the British Export Co. in Nanking, see Hora, Kyokuto Kokusai Gunji Saiban kankei shiryohen, vol. 1, p. 120.

    17. Wickert, John Rabe, p. 96.

    18. Ibid., p. 268.

    19. Kasahara, Nankin nanminku no hyakunichi, p. 153.

    20. Wickert, John Rabe, p. 105.

    21. Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safey Zone, p. 21.

    22. Deutsche Gesandschaft/Botschaft in China, p. 195.

    23. BN, p. 175.

    24. See Chapter 12, Note 59.

    25. Smalley, op. cit., p. 43.

    26. Wickert, John Rabe, p. 130.

    27. EABN, Part 8 in Kaiko (November 1984), p. 7.

    28. Wickert, John Rabe, p. 121f.

    29. Ibid., p. 122.

    30. Ibid., p. 261.

    31. Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p. 5.

    32. Bates, op. cit. He refers to prisoners of war as "military prisoners."

    33. For example, see Hsu, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, p. 60.

    34. Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee, p. 19.

    35. See Chapter 13, Note 54.

    36. See Chapter 13, Note 65.

    37. See Chapter 13, Note 64.

    38. See Chapter 13, Note 67.

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